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Preamble
In many ways the rise of the Temenggongs
"developed in counterpoint to the decay of old Johor" especially in
relation to the power and position of the Johor Sultans. This became more
apparent with the coming of the British and the subsequent colonization of
Singapore after 1819. The rise of "Temenggong [Abdul Rahman]…came to
depend almost exclusively on the goodwill and tolerance of the [British]
government in Singapore. On the other hand, the power and prestige of the
Sultans decreased correspondingly as Sultan Husssein and his successors soon
became more figureheads, as observed by Governnor Butterworth from hindsight.
Prior to examining the chang ing and dynamic relationship between the Sultan and
the Temenggong, this paper will look into the theoretical claims and roles of
both offices so that a clearer appreciation of the interplay of powers could be
reached.
The Theoretical Claims of the Sultan
The Sultan’s exalted and indispensable role in society is reinforced by the
attitude expressed in the Sejarah Melayu:
…it has been grated by
Almighty God to Malay subjects that they shall
never be disloyal or treacherous to their rulers, even if their rulers behave
evilly or inflict injustice upon them.
This reverent respect given to the Sultan was based on a few important criteria
which are primarily the theoretical claims to kingship. First, he must belong to
the illustrious family line traceable to a legendary heroic figure or a pious
religious scholar. However, if he could not boast of a prestigious ancestry, the
potential candidate could marry into an established aristocratic line or by mere
invention of prophecy, prediction or story to substantiate his claim to
kingship.
Secondly, the ruler should ideally cultivate personal and charismatic qualities such as malu (humility), ilmu (knowledge) and akal (understanding). Such virtues would win him the loyalty of many people.
Besides the above named personal credentials, the ruler must be vested with daulat and derhaka which signify divine approval of his leadership. In addition to these, the Sultan must be in possession of the kebesaran (regalia) which was equated with the possession of extraordinary power, legitimizing his rule.
Lastly, the exclusive prerogatives of the ruler such as the Malay bahasa dalam the exclusive use of the yellow colour and the monopoly over turtle eggs, elephant tusks, fruits of the ketiar tree, albino buffaloes and the right to have children outside marriage marked him off as one who is sovereign.
Taking into account of what has been said, it must be noted that in reality the theoretical concepts do not always find expression in practice. This is because of certain constraints imposed on the ruler. For example, the Sultan was to uphold maufakat (consensus of agreement) and adat (customary laws and practice). This means that the exalted position of the Sultan was not license for abitrary government. The Sejarah Melayu warns that:
No ruler, however great his wisdom and understanding, shall prosper or succeed in doing justice unless he consults with those in authority under him. For rulers are like fire and their ministers are like firewood and fire needs wood to produce a flame.
Also, the Sultan had to "share" his power with the nobles and chieftains by delegating authority to them to rule over part of his sultanate.
The Powerhouse of the Sultan: The Sources of Power
There are three primary sources of power of a Sultan. The first is wealth. The importance of wealth is emphasized in traditional accounts like the Sejarah Melayu which presents the Sultan as the source of limitless wealth. With the accumulated wealth he has, the Sultan should reward those who serve him faithfully so as to win their continuous support. Realizing the importance of wealth, the ruler might attempt to weaken the economic and political power of his potential rivals.
The second source of power is the personal ability and ingenuity of the ruler. As the political system was often fluid, the personal qualities of the ruler was significant in the event of a power struggle. Even if the ruler could invoke divine sanction as justification of his rule, he needed to maintain his grand-sounding titles at the end of the day. Specifically, the Sultan needed to ensure that the court maintained close supervision over the territorial chiefs so as to check internal dissension and rebellion.
Lastly, as alluded to earlier, the Sultan could rely on his theoretical claims to kingship as the power base of his rule. Very often, he could lay claim to be the "Shadow of Allah on Earth" and hence the God-appointed leader of the ummah (politico-religious community of all Muslims). The theoretical claims of the Sultan imputed legitimacy to his reign.
The Functions and Definitions of the Temenggong
In the days of the Malacca Sultanate, the Temenggong was the Minister of War and Justice. He was also the Master of Ceremonies at all receptions. Besides these duties, the Temenggong was the official principally involved in the collection of import and export duties. He was subservient to the Sultan and he derived the title of his authority from the Sultan under the constitutional theory of the Malay State. Besides the Temenggong, there were other high-ranking court functionaries serving the Sultan. One of the most important ministers was the Bendahara who dealt with foreign traders and acted as an arbiter in disputes between Malays and foreigners. He was frequently acting as the king-maker.The next prominent minister was the Penghulu Bendahri who controlled all state revenues. In addition, he was responsible for the ruler’s servants and clerks.
Another powerful personality in the court was the Laksamana. He headed the military administration and was commander of the ruler’s bodyguard. Since the most effective arm of Malacca’s forces was the navy, the post of the Laksamana became equated with the leader of the fleets.
However, with decline of the Johor Sultanate and the ascendancy of the Bugis in nineteenth-century Johor, the Temenggong came to assume more and more power in the government. In fact, the Temenggongs represented a minor branch of the family which ruled the Johore empire after 1699, following the regicide of Sultan Mahmud II. The office of the Temenggong was further consolidated after 1762 when it became hereditary among Temenggong Abdul Jamal’s direct descendents.
Changing Relationship between the Sultans and the Temenggongs of Johor
From 1819 on, the major theme of the history of the Temenggongs is that of their relationship with the British in Singapore. On 30th January 1819, Temenggong Abdul Rahman was recognized as the "Ruler of Singapore, who govern[ed] the country of Singapore in his own name and in the name of Sree Sultan Hussein Muhammad Shah…
The British recognition of the Temenggong’s paramount position was due to the fact that the
Temenggong’s following of maritime people numbered between anywhere from 6 000 to 10 000 which gave the Temenggong a chain of strategically located bases which made possible the control of all traffic moving between the Straits of Malacca and the South China Sea.
In view of the above, the British intensified their efforts in courting the co-operation of the Temenggong by offering attractive financial reward. On the other hand, the British recognized Sultan Hussein as the "nominal suzerain" who "exercised only one prerogative, that of trying to extract money for his privy purse." The British considered Temenggong Abdul Rahman more powerful than the Sultan who " was but a legal necessity."
The compromising attitude of the Sultan towards the Temenggong could be well-illustrated in one incident:
In February 1824 the Resident sent a peon to Kampong Glam to proclaim that no one might wear a creese but the peon was afraid and sought audience of the Sultan who told him if he issued the proclamation he would have him cressed on the spot! However the Temenggong consented and the Sultan gave way.
Such was the power of the Temenggong that he "was able to claim such a potentially large revenue entirely for himself to the exclusion of Sultan Hussein. Undoubtedly, the Sultan became a mere figurehead with no actual executive power and was utterly dependent on the British as well as the Temenggong who still commanded the loyalty of many coastal inhabitants.
The signing of the Anglo-Dutch Treaty in 1824 marked a significant turning point in the relationship between the British and the two native chiefs. This was because the "English were no longer dependent on the tenuous agreements they had made with the [Sultan and the Temenggong]. Following the treaty, the British concluded a treaty with the Sultan and the Temenggong in which both lost all legitimate claim to status and political power in Singapore. They were compensated with a token sum of money in return for their cession of Singapore to the British.
The greatest beneficiary of the new boundaries established by the English and the Dutch in 1924 was undoubtedly the Temenggong. When Sultan Hussein died in 1835 no influential voice was raised in support of the succession of his son Ali, then a child of ten. The Governor of Singapore in fact commented that now "no reason exists for the recognition of a mere titular prince.
Political wrangles about Ali’s status continued, but in 1855 it was finally agreed that he could be installed as Sultan of Peninsular Johor but with authority only over the small area of Muar. All administrative powers in Johor proper would be ceded to the more energetic Temenggong Ibrahim, took office in 1862. He gained the permission of the Riau court to use the title "Maharaja"in 1868. Subsequently, in 1885 Abu Bakar was recognized as Sultan of Johor by the British.
In Retrospect
From hindsight, it could be said that the relationship between the Sultan and the Temengong was a dynamic one. From one who commanded unquestioning authority during the days of the Malaccan Sultanate, the monarchy had undergone a declivity which resulted in a weaker control of the territories by the Sultan.. At the same time, the
Temenggong increased his power and enhanced his position at the expense of the Sultanate. The coming of the British in 1819 precipitated this process.
