Horsemanship

INTRODUCTION Horsemanship, art of maintaining precise control over a horse while riding it (sometimes referred to as equitation), or while driving it from the seat of a vehicle. Horsemanship also implies knowledge of the care of horses and the use of horse equipment, known as tack.

The items of equipment essential to effective horsemanship include the halter, bridle, saddle, and stirrups. Tack traditionally is put on the horse from the left, or so-called near side; the right side of the horse is called the off side.

The bridle comprises the bit, the headstall, and the reins. The bit is a metal bar that fits into the horse’s mouth. The skilled rider exerts control over the horse by means of pressure on the bit. The headstall, to which the bit is attached, is an arrangement of leather straps secured about the horse’s nose, jaw, and head. The reins are leather lines attached to the bit on each side of the horse’s mouth; they run along each side of the neck to the rider’s hands.

The saddle is a leather seat that fits over the horse’s back, with flaps extending down the sides of the animal. It is held in place by a cinch, or girth, that encircles the belly of the horse and fastens under each flap. The part of the saddle occupied by the rider is called the seat, the front of which is the pommel and the rear the cantle. Suspended from each side of the saddle by adjustable straps are semicircular metal or wooden stirrups, which support the rider’s feet.

Although types of saddles vary widely according to their purpose, the two main styles are Western, or stock, and English. The English saddle is comparatively light and flat while the stock saddle is heavier with a higher cantle and pommel. The horn, projected from the pommel, serves as anchor for a lariat, which is used when working cattle.

VI BASIC EQUITATION The fundamental skills of riding include mounting and dismounting, employing one or more of the various riding styles, or “seats,” and using the proper signals for controlling and directing the horse’s movements.

A Mounting Mounting a horse involves several separate acts executed in one continuous movement. The rider stands beside the left shoulder of the mount. He or she faces the horse’s hindquarters or the saddle while holding the reins in the left hand, which rests on the horse’s neck in front of the pommel. With the right hand the near stirrup is twisted toward the rider, the left foot is inserted in it, the right hand is placed on the cantle, and the rider rises from the ground, transferring his or her weight to the left foot and both hands. The right hand is then removed from the cantle, the right leg is swung up and across the horse’s back, and the rider settles lightly into the saddle.

B Dismounting To dismount, the rider again holds both reins in the left hand in front of the pommel. Disengaging the right foot from the stirrup, the rider transfers weight to the left foot, then swings the right foot backwards and over the horse’s back, leaning against the horse’s left side to transfer weight to both hands. Pausing to remove the left foot from the stirrup, the rider slides to the ground; riding boots or sturdy shoes with heels will help to prevent a rider’s feet from becoming caught in the stirrups.

VII SEAT AND HANDS The prime consideration with respect to the seat is the maintenance of the rider’s balance with that of the horse. This is accomplished by the rider sitting directly above the mount’s center of balance, which varies according to the function that is performed. A rider must be relaxed and calm in the saddle, as any tension or fear on his or her part is quickly transmitted to the horse.

Proper use of the hands is a vital factor in good horsemanship. Because any heavy-handedness may injure and eventually spoil the sensitivity of the horse’s mouth, light but steady hands on the reins are of utmost importance.

The usual seat for pleasure riding is the forward seat, used on the English saddle. In the forward seat, the rider stays on the horse’s back by a maintenance of balance, rather than by gripping the horse with the knees and clinging to the reins. He or she sits erect in the middle of the saddle with shoulders back and with the small of the back arched slightly forward. The hands are held low in front of the saddle so that the reins and the rider’s arms form straight lines from bit to elbow. One rein is held in each hand, and the horse is made to change direction by a light pulling of the rein on the side toward which the rider wishes it to turn. This procedure is called direct reining. The stirrup supports the foot at the ball, with the heel pressed slightly down, the knees bent, and the lower leg vertical. A properly adjusted stirrup reaches the ankle bone when the leg hangs freely from the saddle.

For pleasure riding on a Western saddle, the rider sits back against the higher cantle, extended legs slightly forward and away from the horse’s sides. The stirrup is placed at the ball of the foot with the heel pressed down. The stirrups are put at a longer adjustment than for the forward seat on the English saddle, so that the rider’s legs and body are almost in a straight line. Both reins are held in one hand, and the horse is directed by neck reining; that is, by applying the pressure of the rein against the horse’s neck on the opposite side of that toward which it is to turn.

A Aids A skilled rider controls a horse by means of various signals, collectively called aids, or in the American West, cues. The natural aids are signals transmitted to the horse by the rider’s legs, hands, and voice and by the shifting of the body weight in the saddle. Natural aids are often supplemented by spurs and whips, which are used to reinforce learning, not to punish the horse.

To make a horse move forward, the rider squeezes his or her legs against the sides of the mount. Increasing pressure as well as voice commands are used to quicken the horse’s pace. The horse is slowed, stopped, and made to back up by backward pressure on the reins.

Most horses have three natural gaits, or series of foot movements: the walk, the trot (or jog), and the canter (or lope). An extended or faster canter is called a gallop. Each gait requires the rider to assume a slightly different posture. At a walk, the rider remains erect in the saddle. In the trot, if riding an English saddle, the rider leans forward slightly and “posts,” that is, moves up and down with the horse’s gait; on a Western saddle the rider presses his or her buttocks against the cantle and “sits” the trot. Both riding styles call for the rider to sit to the canter; but at the gallop, an extended canter, the English-style rider assumes the forward seat, a two-point position with the upper body inclined further forward and buttocks raised out of the saddle. See Horse: Gaits.

A Jumping As a horse jumps, its center of gravity shifts forward to a point in front of the saddle. To remain in balance, the rider inclines his or her body into the two-point position. A saddle with padded knee rolls for support and a slightly elevated cantle facilitates this position. The rider learns to jump by first trotting, then cantering low fences. The rider’s upper body must not slip backwards, legs must remain at the girth with heels still depressed, and hands must not interfere with the horse’s mouth. Practice develops the ability to regulate the horse’s striding in order to reach a takeoff point neither too close nor too far from the fence.

The racing seat of a jockey is an exaggeration of the forward seat. As a racehorse gathers speed and gallops in a straight line, its center of balance moves forward. A jockey therefore crouches forward along the neck of the horse with legs held high by very short stirrups. The crouching posture affords the added advantages of giving free play to the horse’s hindlegs, which supply the main impetus of its stride, and of creating less wind resistance than would an upright posture.

C Working Cow Pony By contrast, the cowhand’s mount when pursuing cattle often follows an abruptly swerving, zigzag course. The horse’s center of balance therefore lies slightly toward the back of its body, since it must remain poised to turn and stop quickly. Consequently, the cowhand sits relatively far back on the mount with legs extended, as in Western pleasure riding. This seat keeps the cowhand in balance with the horse during rapid changes of direction and enables the rider to brace against sudden stops. See Cowboys.

D Showing In riding gaited horses, an English saddle without knee rolls must be used. The gaited horse must be collected, or gathered, which means that through the raising of the mount’s head and the flexing of the neck and jaw, the horse’s hindquarters are brought under it so that it is more balanced, a state that enables the horse to change gaits with ease. The rider’s legs and body are more or less straight up and down, and long stirrups are used to maintain balance.

In a gaited or pleasure class in horse shows, the rider is expected to show the horse at different gaits in both directions around a fenced circular ring. At a trot the rider must post on the proper diagonal, sitting down on the saddle when the horse’s inside front leg hits the ground and rising out of the saddle when the outside front leg is down. The horse must take the proper lead in a canter by presenting the inside front leg first. Most horses have naturally correct leads and alternate them with each change of direction. Others must be made to do so by use of leg and hand aids.

E Saddle Seat This style is used almost exclusively when riding the American saddle horse and the Tennessee walking horse (see Horse: Kinds and Breeds). Appropriate tack includes a flat English saddle and a bridle containing both a snaffle (jointed) bit and a curb bit (one allowing for more leverage on the horse’s jaws), or a curb only—that is, a chain or strap attached to the upper part of the bit, allowing for more control. The rider’s legs are held as in Western pleasure riding. Saddle horses move at collected, or gathered, gaits, so the rider’s hands are carried at almost shoulder height to help the horse carry its head and neck. The saddleseat rider posts to the trot, but sits to all other gaits, including the slow gait and rack, artificial as opposed to natural gaits, which five-gaited horses perform.

F Sidesaddle Women who ride sidesaddle sit on a variant of the English saddle. A large hooklike pommel supports the rider’s right leg draped over against the horse’s left side; the left leg is held in a conventional stirrup. Because a woman riding aside cannot influence the horse with her right leg, she carries a crop or whip in the right hand.

G Dressage Dressage (French, “training”) refers to training a horse to be thoroughly supple, balanced, and responsive. Basic dressage work includes collection and extension (shortening and lengthening the horse’s stride) at the walk, trot, and canter, and such lateral movements as the leg yield, in which the horse moves forward and to one side simultaneously.

Dressage can be used as training for other disciplines, for competition, as in horse shows, or for exhibition. The Spanish Riding School of Vienna, founded about 1572, is the world’s most celebrated center of exhibition dressage; among the haute école (highest-schooling) movements are the piaffe, or trot in place, and the so-called airs above the ground, including the levade, controlled rearing, and the capriole, in which the horse simultaneously leaps and kicks out its hind legs.

IX TRAINING The training or breaking of a young horse to saddle or harness consists in gradually accustoming the animal to wearing various pieces of tack and then to carrying or pulling a weight. The forcible breaking of older horses, in which a horse that has had no previous training is bridled, saddled, and ridden, is regarded as primitive and unsatisfactory training.

Advanced training, as with advanced equitation, takes many forms. The training of racehorses and cow ponies is a highly specialized art, best accomplished by professional trainers. The horseman or horsewoman who rides for pleasure, however, should have the knowledge necessary to exercise a choice in training a horse to jump, hunt, behave in a show-ring, or learn the basic dressage maneuvers. Because these accomplishments are based on the natural movements of the horse, patience, skill, and repetition are the prime teaching factors.

X DRIVING In recent years interest in pleasure driving has undergone a revival. Horses or ponies are driven singly or in pairs to carts, buggies, or one of many varieties of carriages. Teams of four are put to large road coaches. Most horses adapt well to driving.

A Training Horses are introduced to the harness, which comprises the bridle, long reins, saddle or back pad, and, around the horse’s neck or chest, a neck or breast collar to which are attached long straps, called traces, that draw the vehicle. The breeching, which fits around the horse’s rump, is an aid in training the horse in stopping and backing.

The next step involves putting the horse between the shafts of a training cart. The trainer then walks behind the vehicle, controlling the horse by means of ropes (called long lines). When the horse becomes accustomed to pulling the weight of the vehicle, the trainer gets into the cart and drives the horse from the seat. Proper gaits include the walk, collected trot, and a faster, or park, trot. Horses that are to be driven with others are judged to see whether they work better on the left or right side or, in the case of four-in-hand teams, as the “leader” or the “wheel” horses.

B Driver The driver, colloquially called the “whip,” sits erect, traditionally wearing an apron, as protection against road dust, and some form of headgear. The driver mounts the vehicle from the right side. The reins are held in the left hand, the right hand being kept free to carry the whip and to help manipulate the reins during turns. The horse is urged forward with voice commands and signals with the reins or a touch of the whip.

XI CARE AND GROOMING One of the most important adjuncts of horsemanship is the proper care of the mount, which includes its grooming, feeding, medical care, and shoeing. Grooming is a process designed to clean the horse and stimulate its skin. The first step in grooming is to rub, or curry, the horse’s body with a rubber comb called a currycomb; the currycomb should be moved in small circles with emphasis on the direction of growth of the hair. The currying process loosens the hair and stimulates the flow of blood through the horse’s skin. The horse’s body, including its mane and tail, is then curried with a stiff brush, called a dandy brush, which removes loose hair and mud and smooths the horse’s coat. Finally, the body and face of the horse are stroked with a soft brush that polishes the coat. Grooming also includes the cleaning of the mount’s feet before and after each ride and the periodic removal of excess hair from its tail and mane.

After being ridden, the horse should be rubbed down with a handful of hay or sponged with cool water; it should then be curried, covered with a blanket, and walked until it is dry. If the mount is excessively hot and wet after being ridden, however, the rider should remove its saddle and bridle, cover it with a blanket, allow it to drink a small amount of water, and walk it until it dries off.

The proper feeding of a horse depends on its breed and on the type of work it performs. In general, a saddle horse that weighs about 544 kg (1200 lbs) and that gets six hours of rigorous exercise daily should be fed three times a day; its meals should consist of 134 or 202 cu in. (2 or 3 dry qt) of grain or sweet feed mixed with small amounts of corn and linseed meal. In addition, the horse should be fed bran mash once a week, just prior to its day of rest.

Any medical care given to a horse by its owner should be limited to treatment for minor ailments; more serious illnesses should be treated by a veterinarian. A horse should be treated for intestinal worms three or four times a year.

Proper shoeing is a highly important, although often neglected, aspect of horse care. The horse owner should choose a blacksmith with great care. The type of shoe used depends on such factors as the breed of horse, the type of work it does, and the way it habitually handles its feet.


	Horsemanship \| home About Us \| Trail Rides \| Horses for sale \| Tack Shop \| My Horse \| Contact us \| News \| Rodeo \| Buying A Horse \| Horse breeds \| Miniature Horse Facts \| Horse Breed& Color Codes \| Poisonous Plants \| Grooming \| Equine Terminology \| Fitting the Blanket \| Horse Health \| Horse's Vital Signs \| Cribbing \| Coggins Test \| Strangles \| Prevention of Colic \| Common Internal Parasites \| Laminitis \| Equine First Aid Kit \| Vaccination Schedule \| Horse's Teeth \| Teeth/Dental Care \| Horse anatomy \| Organs of the Horse \| Muscles of the Horse \| Horse Colors \| Horses Hoof \| Shoeing your Horse \| Thrush \| Winter Hoof Care \| Trail Riding \| Riding Preparation \| Trailering \| Riding \| Horse Facts \| Horse Tips \| Horse Evolution \| The Horse in History \| The Horse in the Arts \| Feeding your Horse \| Feeding the Older Horse \| Types of Feed \| Broodmare Nutrition \| Foaling Kit \| Bathing Your Horse \| Is your horse winter ready? \| Horsemanship \| Gaits of a Horse \| Horse Behavior \| Parts of a saddle \| Selecting a Saddle \| Styles of Riding \| Haltering and Tying Horses \| How to tie a quick release knot \| Loading your Horse \| Tying a Rope Halter \| Horse treats \| recipes \| Just for Kids \| Horse Drawings \| Kids penpals \| Horse Puzzles \| Sim games links \| Horse trivia \| Caption contest \| Horse polls \| Horses New Year's Resolutions \| What is a Cowboy? \| Cowboy Poetry \| Horse's Prayer \| A Cowboy's Prayer \| A Cowboy's Guide to Life \| Horsey humor \| Horsey quotes \| A Horse by any other name \| Horse Dreams \| Horse Birthdays \| Horse pictures \| Horse Memorial \| My awards-page 1 \| Win my award \| Horse Searches \| Horse links \| Banners \| Link to us \| webrings \| Cool links \| Clipart \| Backgrounds \| Bordered backgrounds \| Bars \| Buttons \| Icons \| Animations \| Screensavers \| Wallpaper \| Greeting cards \| Stationery \| Affiliates \| Free Stuff \| Email \| Chat \| Message board \| My dog "RAGS" INTRODUCTION Horsemanship, art of maintaining precise control over a horse while riding it (sometimes referred to as equitation), or while driving it from the seat of a vehicle. Horsemanship also implies knowledge of the care of horses and the use of horse equipment, known as tack. II TACK The items of equipment essential to effective horsemanship include the halter, bridle, saddle, and stirrups. Tack traditionally is put on the horse from the left, or so-called near side; the right side of the horse is called the off side. III HALTER The halter is used to control the horse from the ground. It consists of straps around the head of the horse and a ring under the chin to which a lead or tying line may be snapped. IV BRIDLE The bridle comprises the bit, the headstall, and the reins. The bit is a metal bar that fits into the horse’s mouth. The skilled rider exerts control over the horse by means of pressure on the bit. The headstall, to which the bit is attached, is an arrangement of leather straps secured about the horse’s nose, jaw, and head. The reins are leather lines attached to the bit on each side of the horse’s mouth; they run along each side of the neck to the rider’s hands. V SADDLE The saddle is a leather seat that fits over the horse’s back, with flaps extending down the sides of the animal. It is held in place by a cinch, or girth, that encircles the belly of the horse and fastens under each flap. The part of the saddle occupied by the rider is called the seat, the front of which is the pommel and the rear the cantle. Suspended from each side of the saddle by adjustable straps are semicircular metal or wooden stirrups, which support the rider’s feet. Although types of saddles vary widely according to their purpose, the two main styles are Western, or stock, and English. The English saddle is comparatively light and flat while the stock saddle is heavier with a higher cantle and pommel. The horn, projected from the pommel, serves as anchor for a lariat, which is used when working cattle. VI BASIC EQUITATION The fundamental skills of riding include mounting and dismounting, employing one or more of the various riding styles, or “seats,” and using the proper signals for controlling and directing the horse’s movements. A Mounting Mounting a horse involves several separate acts executed in one continuous movement. The rider stands beside the left shoulder of the mount. He or she faces the horse’s hindquarters or the saddle while holding the reins in the left hand, which rests on the horse’s neck in front of the pommel. With the right hand the near stirrup is twisted toward the rider, the left foot is inserted in it, the right hand is placed on the cantle, and the rider rises from the ground, transferring his or her weight to the left foot and both hands. The right hand is then removed from the cantle, the right leg is swung up and across the horse’s back, and the rider settles lightly into the saddle. B Dismounting To dismount, the rider again holds both reins in the left hand in front of the pommel. Disengaging the right foot from the stirrup, the rider transfers weight to the left foot, then swings the right foot backwards and over the horse’s back, leaning against the horse’s left side to transfer weight to both hands. Pausing to remove the left foot from the stirrup, the rider slides to the ground; riding boots or sturdy shoes with heels will help to prevent a rider’s feet from becoming caught in the stirrups. VII SEAT AND HANDS The prime consideration with respect to the seat is the maintenance of the rider’s balance with that of the horse. This is accomplished by the rider sitting directly above the mount’s center of balance, which varies according to the function that is performed. A rider must be relaxed and calm in the saddle, as any tension or fear on his or her part is quickly transmitted to the horse. Proper use of the hands is a vital factor in good horsemanship. Because any heavy-handedness may injure and eventually spoil the sensitivity of the horse’s mouth, light but steady hands on the reins are of utmost importance. The usual seat for pleasure riding is the forward seat, used on the English saddle. In the forward seat, the rider stays on the horse’s back by a maintenance of balance, rather than by gripping the horse with the knees and clinging to the reins. He or she sits erect in the middle of the saddle with shoulders back and with the small of the back arched slightly forward. The hands are held low in front of the saddle so that the reins and the rider’s arms form straight lines from bit to elbow. One rein is held in each hand, and the horse is made to change direction by a light pulling of the rein on the side toward which the rider wishes it to turn. This procedure is called direct reining. The stirrup supports the foot at the ball, with the heel pressed slightly down, the knees bent, and the lower leg vertical. A properly adjusted stirrup reaches the ankle bone when the leg hangs freely from the saddle. For pleasure riding on a Western saddle, the rider sits back against the higher cantle, extended legs slightly forward and away from the horse’s sides. The stirrup is placed at the ball of the foot with the heel pressed down. The stirrups are put at a longer adjustment than for the forward seat on the English saddle, so that the rider’s legs and body are almost in a straight line. Both reins are held in one hand, and the horse is directed by neck reining; that is, by applying the pressure of the rein against the horse’s neck on the opposite side of that toward which it is to turn. A Aids A skilled rider controls a horse by means of various signals, collectively called aids, or in the American West, cues. The natural aids are signals transmitted to the horse by the rider’s legs, hands, and voice and by the shifting of the body weight in the saddle. Natural aids are often supplemented by spurs and whips, which are used to reinforce learning, not to punish the horse. To make a horse move forward, the rider squeezes his or her legs against the sides of the mount. Increasing pressure as well as voice commands are used to quicken the horse’s pace. The horse is slowed, stopped, and made to back up by backward pressure on the reins. B Gaits Most horses have three natural gaits, or series of foot movements: the walk, the trot (or jog), and the canter (or lope). An extended or faster canter is called a gallop. Each gait requires the rider to assume a slightly different posture. At a walk, the rider remains erect in the saddle. In the trot, if riding an English saddle, the rider leans forward slightly and “posts,” that is, moves up and down with the horse’s gait; on a Western saddle the rider presses his or her buttocks against the cantle and “sits” the trot. Both riding styles call for the rider to sit to the canter; but at the gallop, an extended canter, the English-style rider assumes the forward seat, a two-point position with the upper body inclined further forward and buttocks raised out of the saddle. See Horse: Gaits. VIII ADVANCED EQUITATION Many types of advanced equitation are used when jumping, racing, working cow ponies, or showing gaited or so-called high school horses. A Jumping As a horse jumps, its center of gravity shifts forward to a point in front of the saddle. To remain in balance, the rider inclines his or her body into the two-point position. A saddle with padded knee rolls for support and a slightly elevated cantle facilitates this position. The rider learns to jump by first trotting, then cantering low fences. The rider’s upper body must not slip backwards, legs must remain at the girth with heels still depressed, and hands must not interfere with the horse’s mouth. Practice develops the ability to regulate the horse’s striding in order to reach a takeoff point neither too close nor too far from the fence. In fox hunting, the rider must have the ability to handle the horse over fences and brush in the field. B Racing The racing seat of a jockey is an exaggeration of the forward seat. As a racehorse gathers speed and gallops in a straight line, its center of balance moves forward. A jockey therefore crouches forward along the neck of the horse with legs held high by very short stirrups. The crouching posture affords the added advantages of giving free play to the horse’s hindlegs, which supply the main impetus of its stride, and of creating less wind resistance than would an upright posture. C Working Cow Pony By contrast, the cowhand’s mount when pursuing cattle often follows an abruptly swerving, zigzag course. The horse’s center of balance therefore lies slightly toward the back of its body, since it must remain poised to turn and stop quickly. Consequently, the cowhand sits relatively far back on the mount with legs extended, as in Western pleasure riding. This seat keeps the cowhand in balance with the horse during rapid changes of direction and enables the rider to brace against sudden stops. See Cowboys. D Showing In riding gaited horses, an English saddle without knee rolls must be used. The gaited horse must be collected, or gathered, which means that through the raising of the mount’s head and the flexing of the neck and jaw, the horse’s hindquarters are brought under it so that it is more balanced, a state that enables the horse to change gaits with ease. The rider’s legs and body are more or less straight up and down, and long stirrups are used to maintain balance. In a gaited or pleasure class in horse shows, the rider is expected to show the horse at different gaits in both directions around a fenced circular ring. At a trot the rider must post on the proper diagonal, sitting down on the saddle when the horse’s inside front leg hits the ground and rising out of the saddle when the outside front leg is down. The horse must take the proper lead in a canter by presenting the inside front leg first. Most horses have naturally correct leads and alternate them with each change of direction. Others must be made to do so by use of leg and hand aids. E Saddle Seat This style is used almost exclusively when riding the American saddle horse and the Tennessee walking horse (see Horse: Kinds and Breeds). Appropriate tack includes a flat English saddle and a bridle containing both a snaffle (jointed) bit and a curb bit (one allowing for more leverage on the horse’s jaws), or a curb only—that is, a chain or strap attached to the upper part of the bit, allowing for more control. The rider’s legs are held as in Western pleasure riding. Saddle horses move at collected, or gathered, gaits, so the rider’s hands are carried at almost shoulder height to help the horse carry its head and neck. The saddleseat rider posts to the trot, but sits to all other gaits, including the slow gait and rack, artificial as opposed to natural gaits, which five-gaited horses perform. F Sidesaddle Women who ride sidesaddle sit on a variant of the English saddle. A large hooklike pommel supports the rider’s right leg draped over against the horse’s left side; the left leg is held in a conventional stirrup. Because a woman riding aside cannot influence the horse with her right leg, she carries a crop or whip in the right hand. G Dressage Dressage (French, “training”) refers to training a horse to be thoroughly supple, balanced, and responsive. Basic dressage work includes collection and extension (shortening and lengthening the horse’s stride) at the walk, trot, and canter, and such lateral movements as the leg yield, in which the horse moves forward and to one side simultaneously. Dressage can be used as training for other disciplines, for competition, as in horse shows, or for exhibition. The Spanish Riding School of Vienna, founded about 1572, is the world’s most celebrated center of exhibition dressage; among the haute école (highest-schooling) movements are the piaffe, or trot in place, and the so-called airs above the ground, including the levade, controlled rearing, and the capriole, in which the horse simultaneously leaps and kicks out its hind legs. IX TRAINING The training or breaking of a young horse to saddle or harness consists in gradually accustoming the animal to wearing various pieces of tack and then to carrying or pulling a weight. The forcible breaking of older horses, in which a horse that has had no previous training is bridled, saddled, and ridden, is regarded as primitive and unsatisfactory training. Advanced training, as with advanced equitation, takes many forms. The training of racehorses and cow ponies is a highly specialized art, best accomplished by professional trainers. The horseman or horsewoman who rides for pleasure, however, should have the knowledge necessary to exercise a choice in training a horse to jump, hunt, behave in a show-ring, or learn the basic dressage maneuvers. Because these accomplishments are based on the natural movements of the horse, patience, skill, and repetition are the prime teaching factors. X DRIVING In recent years interest in pleasure driving has undergone a revival. Horses or ponies are driven singly or in pairs to carts, buggies, or one of many varieties of carriages. Teams of four are put to large road coaches. Most horses adapt well to driving. A Training Horses are introduced to the harness, which comprises the bridle, long reins, saddle or back pad, and, around the horse’s neck or chest, a neck or breast collar to which are attached long straps, called traces, that draw the vehicle. The breeching, which fits around the horse’s rump, is an aid in training the horse in stopping and backing. The next step involves putting the horse between the shafts of a training cart. The trainer then walks behind the vehicle, controlling the horse by means of ropes (called long lines). When the horse becomes accustomed to pulling the weight of the vehicle, the trainer gets into the cart and drives the horse from the seat. Proper gaits include the walk, collected trot, and a faster, or park, trot. Horses that are to be driven with others are judged to see whether they work better on the left or right side or, in the case of four-in-hand teams, as the “leader” or the “wheel” horses. B Driver The driver, colloquially called the “whip,” sits erect, traditionally wearing an apron, as protection against road dust, and some form of headgear. The driver mounts the vehicle from the right side. The reins are held in the left hand, the right hand being kept free to carry the whip and to help manipulate the reins during turns. The horse is urged forward with voice commands and signals with the reins or a touch of the whip. XI CARE AND GROOMING One of the most important adjuncts of horsemanship is the proper care of the mount, which includes its grooming, feeding, medical care, and shoeing. Grooming is a process designed to clean the horse and stimulate its skin. The first step in grooming is to rub, or curry, the horse’s body with a rubber comb called a currycomb; the currycomb should be moved in small circles with emphasis on the direction of growth of the hair. The currying process loosens the hair and stimulates the flow of blood through the horse’s skin. The horse’s body, including its mane and tail, is then curried with a stiff brush, called a dandy brush, which removes loose hair and mud and smooths the horse’s coat. Finally, the body and face of the horse are stroked with a soft brush that polishes the coat. Grooming also includes the cleaning of the mount’s feet before and after each ride and the periodic removal of excess hair from its tail and mane. After being ridden, the horse should be rubbed down with a handful of hay or sponged with cool water; it should then be curried, covered with a blanket, and walked until it is dry. If the mount is excessively hot and wet after being ridden, however, the rider should remove its saddle and bridle, cover it with a blanket, allow it to drink a small amount of water, and walk it until it dries off. The proper feeding of a horse depends on its breed and on the type of work it performs. In general, a saddle horse that weighs about 544 kg (1200 lbs) and that gets six hours of rigorous exercise daily should be fed three times a day; its meals should consist of 134 or 202 cu in. (2 or 3 dry qt) of grain or sweet feed mixed with small amounts of corn and linseed meal. In addition, the horse should be fed bran mash once a week, just prior to its day of rest. Any medical care given to a horse by its owner should be limited to treatment for minor ailments; more serious illnesses should be treated by a veterinarian. A horse should be treated for intestinal worms three or four times a year. Proper shoeing is a highly important, although often neglected, aspect of horse care. The horse owner should choose a blacksmith with great care. The type of shoe used depends on such factors as the breed of horse, the type of work it does, and the way it habitually handles its feet.