Japanese Verb Conjugation
Each verb form gets its own description, conjugation tables where appropriate, generic conjugation instructions, and examples for -u (godan) and -ru (ichidan) verbs.
One of several ways Japanese verbs can be classified is using these two categories: Transitive verbs (those that can have direct objects) where the subject takes the action, and intransitive verbs (those that cannot have a direct object) that basically indicate an action that changes the state of the subject. Which category a verb is in affects the meaning of some forms.
Additionally, although I sometimes refer to forms as 'casual' and 'formal', the 'casual' form is grammatically required in certain situations that have nothing to do with formality. These situations are noted elsewhere when relevant. Formal form is also called long form, polite form, and distal style. Casual form is also called short form, plain form, and direct style.
The Copula
It's not exactly the same thing as a verb, but it does have various different forms, so here they are. I'll explain what the different forms are used for below, with the other verbs.
Do not assume that a form is common just because it exists.
Conjugation table:
| Form | Long | Short | Literary | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Stem | N/A | であり (de ari) | ||
| Nonpast affirmative | です (desu) | だ (da) | である (de aru) | |
| Nonpast negative | じゃありません (ja arimasen) | じゃない (ja nai) | ではない (de wa nai) | |
| Past affirmative | でした (deshita) | だった (datta) | であった (de atta) | |
| Past negative | じゃありませんでした (ja arimasen deshita) | じゃなかった (ja nakatta) | ではなかった (de wa nakatta) | |
| Tentative* | でしょう (deshou) | だろう (darou) | であろう (de arou) | |
| -te form | でして (deshite) | で (de) | であって (de atte) | |
| Potential | N/A† | |||
| Passive | N/A | |||
| Causative | N/A | |||
| Causative-Passive | N/A | |||
| Command | N/A | |||
| Conditional | でしたら (deshitara) | だったら (dattara) | であったら (de attara) | |
| Provisional | N/A‡ | であれば (de areba) | ||
| Alternative | でしたり (deshitari) | だったり (dattari) | であったり (de attari) | |
* This form is the equivalent to the volitional/hortative form, but is not used the same way. Refer to the tentative section.
† There is a form, でいられる (de irareru), that can be used when referring to a person and effectively acts as a potential copula, though it isn't quite the same.
‡ Though there are no non-literary provisional forms of the copula, ならば (naraba) and なら (nara) mean nearly the same thing.
Contractions, etc.:
じゃ (ja) is a contraction of では (de wa). The uncontracted form is used more often in writing, and hardly ever when spoken, except for effect.
です is a contraction of であります (or でございます, depending on your source), and similarly with だ from である, でした from でありました, and so on. The longer versions are not often used, but this at least explains why the various forms of ある keep showing up.
Variations:
In casual speech, です (desu) may turn into っす (ssu), as in 面白いっす (omoshiroi ssu = it's interesting). This is generally a more masculine/macho tendency.
The highly respectful version is でいらっしゃる (de irassharu), which conjugates as いらっしゃる (irassharu) does. The humble one, でござる (de gozaru), similarly conjugates like ござる (gozaru). Both いらっしゃる and ござる are old-style '-aru' verbs, and conjugate somewhat differently than most verbs.
Note that all negative forms of the copula generally add は (wa) after で (de). This can be omitted, leaving forms like でない (de nai), but only rarely is.
Some dialects use じゃ (ja) or や (ya) instead of だ (da), and there may be other variants as well.
Positive negative:
じゃない isn't always really a negative. Occasionally, it's added to the end of a fact, when the fact is unexpected. It's sort of like "Isn't this..." or "It can't be...", but doesn't really translate. I'm not sure whether じゃありません is used similarly in formal speech, or if this is something that only happens in casual. As an example, when Crono finds the missing queen's hairpin in Chrono Trigger, Lucca, after looking at it closely, says:
- 「これ、ガルディア王家の紋章 じゃない！」 (Kore, GARUDIA ouke no monshou ja nai!)
Although the sentence literally says, "this isn't the Guardia royal family's coat of arms," it's obvious in context that she means that it is the royal family's coat of arms. I'm pretty sure the じゃない just means she never expected to find something like that there, or maybe it's more like "Isn't this the Guardia royal family's coat of arms!?".
The Verb Stem
The verb stem usually has something attached to it, instead of being used alone, but is too useful to leave out.
- Many verb endings attach directly to the stem with no further modification. See the other sections below for some of these.
- A second verb may attach to make a compound verb, and there are all sorts of other verb auxiliaries that attach to it.
- At least for some verbs, the stem can be used as a noun that refers to the action involved. For example, 休む (yasumu = to rest, take time off, or be absent) and 休み (yasumi = rest, vacation, or absence).
- Ending a phrase with a verb stem can be used like the -te form to link into the next one, especially in writing.
- 「ちゃんとノートを取り、それを勉強すれば、試験が問題ではあるまい。」 (Chanto NOOTO wo tori, sore wo benkyou sureba, shiken ga mondai de wa arumai.) = "If you take proper notes and study them, the test should not be a problem."
Conjugation table:
| Dictionary | Stem |
|---|---|
| する (suru) | し (shi, not su) |
| 来る (kuru) | 来 (ki, not ku) |
| -u verbs | change the final -u to -i |
| Old style -aru verbs | change the final -ru to -i |
| -ru verbs | remove る (ru) from the end |
As examples:
- 飲む (nomu) ⇒ 飲み (nomi)
- 下さる (kudasaru) ⇒ 下さい (kudasai)
- 食べる (taberu) ⇒ 食べ (tabe)
Pronunciation shifts:
I think this is clear enough, but just in case, changing the -u in -u verbs to -i means changing the final kana in the dictionary form (which always ends in the 'u' vowel) to the corresponding kana with an 'i' vowel. This causes a change in the romanization of the consonant, and some change in pronunciation, for verbs that end in つ (tsu) or す (su), which become ち (chi) and し (shi), respectively.
Nonpast Affirmative (-masu and dictionary forms)
The most basic form. It's a lot like a normal present tense verb in English, for example, 'does', except that it can refer to the future ("will do") as well as the present. There is no special future form in Japanese. When talking about the future, time adverbs are often used, or other forms that refer to plans, decisions, or something similar.
For intransitive verbs, this form is also essentially the same as the English present progressive ('-ing') form, since those verbs are more concerned with the result of the action than the action itself. Transitive verbs use a different form to indicate that an action is in progress; see the -te form for details.
Conjugation table:
| Dictionary | Long | Short |
|---|---|---|
| する (suru) | します (shimasu) | する (suru) |
| 来る (kuru) | 来ます (kimasu) | 来る (kuru) |
| -u verbs and old-style -aru verbs | add ます (masu) to the stem | no change—dictionary form is the same as short form |
| -ru verbs | ||
| 話す (hanasu) | 話します (hanashimasu) | 話す (hanasu) |
| いらっしゃる (irassharu) | いらっしゃいます (irasshaimasu) | いらっしゃる (irassharu) |
| 食べる (taberu) | 食べます (tabemasu) | 食べる (taberu) |
Dictionary form:
Since the short nonpast affirmative is the same as the dictionary form, verbs listed in a dictionary can be used as-is, at least when the casual nonpast affirmative is appropriate.
Nonpast Negative (-masen and -nai forms)
This is the same as the nonpast affirmative except that it means the action does not occur. It's like "does not do" or the future form "will not do" in English. As with the positive, time adverbs or indications of things like plans can make the future explicit.
A note on negative verbs and their interaction with other words: Some words are used only with negatives, or are generally listed as having opposite meanings when used with a negative. These aren't double negatives. For example, いつも (itsumo) is often defined as "always, never (with negative)". What this actually means is that 「いつも待つ」 (itsumo matsu) means "always waits" as expected, but 「いつも待たない」 (itsumo matanai) is not "never doesn't wait". It's "always doesn't wait", more naturally written in English as "never waits". This is just moving the negative from the verb, where it goes in Japanese, into an adverb, where it tends to go in English. Remember that the negative in Japanese is part of the verb conjugation and not a separate word.
Conjugation table:
| Dictionary | Long | Short |
|---|---|---|
| する (suru) | しません (shimasen) | しない (shinai) |
| 来る (kuru) | 来ません (kimasen) | 来ない (konai) |
| -u verbs and old-style -aru verbs | add ません (masen) to stem | change -u to -a and add ない (nai) |
| Exception: ある (aru) | ない (nai), also written 無い (nai) | |
| -ru verbs | drop る (ru), add ない (nai) | |
| 会う (au) | 会いません (aimasen) | 会わない (awanai) |
| ござる (gozaru) | ございません (gozaimasen) | ござらない (gozaranai) |
| 見る (miru) | 見ません (mimasen) | 見ない (minai) |
Pronunciation shifts:
There are, of course, some romanization / pronunciation changes in some casual forms. つ (tsu) becomes た (ta), but more significantly, う (u) becomes わ (wa). Apparently, such vowels once ended in a 'wu' character that no longer exists.
Variations:
In spoken informal language, the ～ない (-nai) in most short nonpast negatives may be shortened to ～ん (-n). From what I can tell, there must be at least two kana before ～ない for this to apply; otherwise the result is too short. As a result, あわない→あわん is okay, but I've never seen or heard みん (from みない). This shortened form tends to be used by males more than females.
- 「気に食わんぞ。」 (Ki ni kuwan zo.) = "I don't like it." or "It doesn't agree with me."
Be careful with this, as it's identical to an archaic version of the positive volitional form. On the other hand, the archaic volitional is far less common in the modern language.
Another fairly common shortening is replacing ～らない (-ranai) at the end of forms that contain it with ～んない (nnai). This tends to be a more girlish usage, and perhaps sounds a bit whiny. As with the ～ない to ～ん shift, this only seems to happen when there are at least two kana before ～らない.
- 「分かんないよ！」 (Wakannai yo!) = "I don't get it!"
The same shortening may also occur in other words ending with ～らない (the -i adjective つまらない→つまんない comes to mind), but short nonpast negatives are the most common occurance of the sound.
Invitations:
Adding か to a sentence with a nonpast negative verb makes it an invitation to do that activity. In casual usage, か is optional, and the question is indicated with a simple rising intonation (in speech) or question mark (in writing).
- 「映画を見ませんか。」 (Eiga wo mimasen ka.) = "Would you like to see a movie?"
- 「一緒に来ない？」 (Issho ni konai?) = "Would you come with me?"
Other negatives:
Short form nonpast negative verbs may end with ～ぬ (-nu) or ～ず (-zu) instead of ～ない (-nai). For most verbs, the only difference is the changed ending, but する becomes せぬ (senu) and せず (sezu) rather than しぬ (shinu) and しず (shizu), and ある stops being an exception and becomes あらぬ (aranu) and あらず (arazu).
～ぬ is archaic and very uncommon in the modern language, but it sometimes used for effect, or appears in idioms or other set phrases.
- 「何食わぬ顔」 (nani kuwanu kao) = "an innocent look" (idiomatic)
- 「まだ見ぬ明日」 (mada minu asu) = "tomorrow yet unseen"
～ず is also archaic, and is nearly always followed with に (ni), though it can, rarely, be used without it. The ～ずに (-zu ni) ending appears with moderate frequency in writing, and is equivalent to the connective uses of the negative -te form. ～ず also occurs in some idioms and other set phrases.
- 「恥知らず」 (haji shirazu) = "shameless" (literally "does not know shame").
- (from Inuyasha OP "Change the World") 「CHANGE MY MIND / 情熱たやさずに」 (CHANGE MY MIND / Jounetsu tayasazu ni) = "Change my mind / Without letting my passion die out"
Past Affirmative (-mashita and -ta forms)
It's just like the nonpast affirmative, except that it IS past. The action already happened, like 'did'. The short form conjugations for -u verbs vary here depending on the final consonant.
Conjugation table:
| Dictionary | Long | Short |
|---|---|---|
| する (suru) | しました (shimashita) | した (shita) |
| 来る (kuru) | 来ました (kimashita) | 来た (kita) |
| -u verbs ending in う (u), つ (tsu), or る (ru), and old-style -aru verbs | add ました (mashita) to stem | drop last character, add った (tta) |
| -u verbs ending in む (mu), ぶ (bu), or ぬ (nu) | drop last character, add んだ (nda) | |
| -u verbs ending in く (ku) | drop く, add いた (ita) | |
| Exception: 行く (iku) | 行った (itta) | |
| -u verbs ending in ぐ (gu) | drop ぐ, add いだ (ida) | |
| -u verbs ending in す (su) | drop す, add した (shita) | |
| -ru verbs | add た (ta) to stem | |
| やる (yaru) | やりました (yarimashita) | やった (yatta) |
| おっしゃる (ossharu) | おっしゃいました (osshaimashita) | おっしゃった (osshatta) |
| 飲む (nomu) | 飲みました (nomimashita) | 飲んだ (nonda) |
| 書く (kaku) | 書きました (kakimashita) | 書いた (kaita) |
| 泳ぐ (oyogu) | 泳ぎました (oyogimashita) | 泳いだ (oyoida) |
| 話す (hanasu) | 話しました (hanashimashita) | 話した (hanashita) |
| 寝る (neru) | 寝ました (nemashita) | 寝た (neta) |
Past Negative (-masen deshita and -nakatta forms)
It's past and it's negative; not much else to say. It just means that the action didn't happen. Comparable to "did not do".
Conjugation table:
| Dictionary | Long | Short |
|---|---|---|
| する (suru) | しませんでした (shimasen deshita) | しなかった (shinakatta) |
| 来る (kuru) | 来ませんでした (kimasen deshita) | 来なかった (konakatta) |
| -u verbs and old-style -aru verbs | add ませんでした (masen deshita) to stem | change ない (nai) in casual nonpast negative to なかった (nakatta) |
| -ru verbs | ||
| 分かる (wakaru) | 分かりませんでした (wakarimasen deshita) | 分からなかった (wakaranakatta) |
| 起きる (okiru) | 起きませんでした (okimasen deshita) | 起きなかった (okinakatta) |
Volitional / Hortative (-mashou and -ou forms)
There's an actual meaning behind the fancy name. 'Volitional' because it can describe decision (volition) and 'hortative' because it can urge (exhort) an action.
Let's...
It's similar to "Let's..." in English, so 「ハンバーガーを食べましょう。」 (HANBAAGAA wo tabemashou.) is like "Let's eat hamburgers". This is the 'hortative' function. In casual speech, the dictionary form is sometimes used similarly, but that's more of a "we'll do this" than a "let's do this."
Shall we...?
As a question, it's like "Shall we ... ?" or "Shall I ... for you?" 「映画を見ようか？」 (Eiga wo miyou ka?) is like "Shall we see a movie?" and 「水を持って来ましょうか。」 (Mizu wo motte kimashou ka.) is like "Shall I bring you some water?" Note that か (ka), which is often dropped in casual questions, frequently remains when using this form.
Making an effort (-ou to suru)
Add とする (to suru) to a volitional form verb and conjugate する (suru) as appropriate.
This is trying in the sense of making an effort to do something. For trying in the sense of experimentation to see what happens, see ～てみる (-te miru). There is also a clause-ending form ～ようにする (-you ni suru) that has the same meaning.
- 「毎朝７時までに起きようとしてる。」 (Maiasa shichiji made ni okiyou to shite iru.) = "I try to get up by 7 every morning."
Decisions:
A sentence in volitional form, followed by the appropriate conjugation of と思っている (to omotte iru), means that the action has been decided on. Using ～と思う (-to omou) instead suggests that the decision is made on the spot.
- 「もっと早く寝ようと思っています。」 (Motto hayaku neyou to omotte imasu.) = "I have decided to go to bed earlier."
- 「こっち行こうと思う。」 (Kotchi ikou to omou.) = "I'll go this way."
Casual shortening:
As often happens in words with long vowels, ～ましょう is sometimes pronounced ～ましょ when the situation isn't too formal.
Let's not:
There is a negative form, but it's so uncommon as to be barely worth mentioning. Simply add ～まい (-mai) to the corresponding nonpast affirmative form, 行くまい (ikumai) for example.
A more natural way of saying the same thing is adding ようにしましょう (you ni shimashou), ことにしましょう (koto ni shimashou), ようにしよう (you ni shiyou), or ことにしよう (koto ni shiyou) to the short nonpast negative form. For exmaple, 行かないようにしよう (ikanai you ni shiyou = let's not go).
Another common way of saying "let's not" is to noun the verb and add the object particle を (wo) and 止めよう (yameyou) or 止めましょう (yamemashou), the volitional form of 止める (yameru = stop, quit). Using the same example, 行くのを止めよう (iku no wo yameyou = let's not go).
Conjugation table:
| Dictionary | Long | Short |
|---|---|---|
| する (suru) | しましょう (shimashou) | しよう (shiyou) |
| 来る (kuru) | 来ましょう (kimashou) | 来よう (koyou) |
| -u verbs | add ましょう (mashou) to stem | change -u to -o and add う (u) |
| -ru verbs | add よう (you) to stem | |
| 泳ぐ (oyogu) | 泳ぎましょう (oyogimashou) | 泳ごう (oyogou) |
| 出かける (dekakeru) | 出かけましょう (dekakemashou) | 出かけよう (dekakeyou) |
Archaic volitional:
Though this is now obsolete, old-style Japanese has an alternate volitional form. Replace the ～ない (-nai) in the short nonpast negative with ～む (-mu), often (usaully?) shortened to ～ん (-n). する (suru) and 来る (kuru) become せん (sen) and 来ん (kon), respectively. This form occasionally appears for effect, but is mostly significant because it remains used in the modern language in prhases such as 言わんばかりに (iwan bakari ni = as if to say).
Be careful, though, since this ～ん ending form is identical to an informal variant of the short nonpast negative, where that variant applies, but has a much different meaning.
The -te Form
This form is used for many different things and has no single English equivalent. The form usually appears as a connective or part of a larger phrase, but may appear by itself as an informal request or an incomplete thought. Refer to the verb auxiliaries section for more on the many uses of the -te form.
Chaining actions together:
[phrase1, ending with -te form verb] + [phrase2] means the same as "[phrase1] and (then) [phrase2]". The tense (and formality) is determined by the verb in phrase2, which conjugates as normal. Either the ～ないで or the ～なくて negative can be used to indicate that the action is not taken.
- 「帰って寝ました。」 (Kaette nemashita) = "I went home and then I slept." or "I slept after going home."
- 「あの人は毎日泳いでお茶を飲む。」 (Ano hito wa mainichi oyoide ocha wo nomu.) = "That person swims and drinks tea every day."
- 「食べないで出かけた。」 (Tabenaide dekaketa.) = "I went out without first eating."
Conjugation table:
| Dictionary | Affirmative -te Form | Negative -te Forms |
|---|---|---|
| する (suru) | して (shite) | しないで (shinaide) しなくて (shinakute) |
| 来る (kuru) | 来て (kite) | 来ないで (konaide) 来なくて (konakute) |
| -u verbs and old-style -aru verbs | change -a in short past affirmative to -e | add で (de) to short nonpast negative change ない (nai) in short nonpast negative to なくて (nakute) |
| -ru verbs | ||
| 乗る (noru) | 乗って (notte) | 乗らないで (noranaide) 乗らなくて (noranakute) |
| 読む (yomu) | 読んで (yonde) | 読まないで (yomanaide) 読まなくて (yomanakute) |
| 聞く (kiku) | 聞いて (kiite) | 聞かないで (kikanaide) 聞かなくて (kikanakute) |
| 行く (iku) | 行って (itte) | 行かないで (ikanaide) 行かなくて (ikanakute) |
| 泳ぐ (oyogu) | 泳いで (oyoide) | 泳がないで (oyoganaide) 泳がなくて (oyoganakute) |
| 話す (hanasu) | 話して (hanashite) | 話さないで (hanasanaide) 話さなくて (hanasanakute) |
| 出かける (dekakeru) | 出かけて (dekakete) | 出かけないで (dekakenaide) 出かけなくて (dekakenakute) |
Superformal:
It's possible to create an extremely formal -te form by changing the nonpast affirmative ～ます (-masu) ending to ～まして (-mashite) and the nonpast negative ～ません (-masen) ending to ～ませんで (-masende). This is overdoing it in most situations, but there are times when it's useful.
Potential (-eru, -rareru, and -reru forms)
Another useful and common form, and not very complicated either. A verb in potential form just means that the action is possible, or can be done. The base potential form conjugates as a standard -ru verb, to you can just as easily say things like "can't do", "want to be able to do", and so on, in both long and short forms. The only complication is that the particle を (wo) is often replaced with が (ga) in a potential sentence, especially with 出来る (dekiru).
- 「泳げます。」 (Oyogemasu.) = "I can swim."
- 「そんな物を食べられるの？」 (Sonna mono wo taberareru no?) = "Can you eat such a thing?"
- 「テニスが出来なかった。」 (TENISU ga dekinakatta.) = "I couldn't play tennis."
It's also not uncommon to see potentials expressed as [verb] + 事が出来る (koto ga dekiru) or [verb] + のが出来る (no ga dekiru). This doesn't seem to be any more or less formal than the plain potential form as far as I can tell. My best guess, based on context, is that the plain potential form is more personal ("I can do it") and this alternate form is more universal ("It is possible to do it"), but I'm far from certain, and there seems to be little if any difference in practice.
- (from Final Fantasy 6) 「フィガロ城を使えば西の地へ行くことができる。」 (FIGARO shiro wo tsukaeba nishi no chi e iku koto ga dekiru.) = "If we use Figaro Castle, we can go to the western lands."
Conjugation table:
| Dictionary | Potential |
|---|---|
| する (suru) | 出来る (dekiru) |
| 来る (kuru) | 来られる (korareru) |
| -u verb | change -u to -e and add る (ru) |
| -ru verb | drop る (ru), add られる (rareru) |
| 話す (hanasu) | 話せる (hanaseru) |
| 食べる (taberu) | 食べられる (taberareru) |
The resulting potential form verb then conjugates as a regular -ru verb.
Potential for confusion:
Potential form is identical to passive form for -ru verbs. Use context to tell which meaning is correct.
Pronunciation shifts:
As usual with changing a vowel, there's a minor pronunciation change. つ (tsu) becomes て (te), which shouldn't be surprising.
Alternate form:
The ～られる (~rareru) ending of -ru verbs is longish, so the unofficial variant ～れる (~reru) is sometimes used in casual speech. Also note that this mirrors the correct passive form conjugation for -u verbs that end in る.
- 「ボブが寝れないって聞いた。」 (BOBU ga nerenai tte kiita.) = "I heard Bob can't sleep."
Passive (-areru)
Like English, Japanese has a passive form that places emphasis on the object of an action rather than the doer. Unlike in English, the passive form is fairly common, and is not considered poor style (I always hated that "rule"). By emphasizing the one affected, this form often has a connotation of victimization, but not necessarily. Use the topic marker は (wa) or subject marker が (ga) to indicate the object of the action, and the particle に (ni) to mark the one doing the action.
- 「ロバートはゴジラに食われた！」 (ROBAATO wa GOJIRA ni kuwareta!) = "Robert was eaten by Godzilla!"
The passive form also works with intransitive verbs (those with no object), with the meaning that the action is an inconvenience or annoyance. This often does not translate directly.
- 「赤ちゃんに泣かれた。」 (Akachan ni nakareta.) = "A baby cried (and it got on my nerves)." or "I was annoyed by a baby crying."
- 「雨に降られました。」 (Ame ni furaremashita.) = "I was rained on."
Conjugation table:
| Dictionary | Passive |
|---|---|
| する (suru) | される (sareru) |
| 来る (kuru) | 来られる (korareru) |
| -u verb | change -u to -a and add れる (reru) |
| -ru verb | change る (ru) to られる (rareru) |
| 呼ぶ (yobu) | 呼ばれる (yobareru) |
| 捨てる (suteru) | 捨てられる (suterareru) |
The resulting passive form verb then conjugates as a regular -ru verb.
Shortening:
The passive form of -ru verbs is sometimes shortened by leaving out the ら (ra), such as 食べれる (tabereru) rather than 食べられる (taberareru). This is considered nonstandard, but does occur.
Potential for confusion:
Passive form is identical to potential form for -ru verbs. Use context to tell which meaning is correct.
Causative (-aseru, -saseru, -asu, -sasu)
A causative verb indicates that one person makes or allows another to take the action (in short, causes it to happen). Use the topic marker は (wa) or subject marker が (ga) to indicate the person causing the action, and the particle に (ni) to mark the person who actually carries out the action. If the verb is intransitive (has no object), then the object marker を (wo) can be used instead of に.
- 「その友達はジョイスに映画を見させました。」 (Sono tomodachi wa JOISU ni eiga wo misasemashita.) = "Her friends made Joyce watch a movie."
- 「親は子供に外で遊ばせる。」 (Oya wa kodomo ni soto de asobaseru.) = "The parents let their children play outside."
- 「親は子供を外で遊ばせる。」 (Oya wa kodomo wo soto de asobaseru.) = "The parents let their children play outside."
It's unclear without proper context whether the causer is allowing an action (that the actor wants to do) or forcing one (that the actor doesn't want to do). For example, the sentences above could also be read "Her friends allowed Joyce to watch a movie" and "The parents make their children play outside."
To make the 'allow' meaning unambiguous, use the -te form of the causative verb and follow with one of the 'give' or 'receive' verbs.
- 「ルームメートは私に宿題をさせてくれました。」 (RUUMUMEETO wa watashi ni shukudai wo sasete kuremashita.) = "My roomate let me do my homework." (perhaps after being annoyingly distracting for a while.)
This usage is also one way to ask permission.
- 「トイレに行かせてください。」 (TOIRE ni ikasete kudasai.) = "Please let me go to the bathroom."
Shortening:
A shorter variant causative form sometimes appears. According to conjugation notes on Jim Breen's WWWJDIC, this form has a connotation of a more direct causation. Assuming he's right, it would mean that, for example...
- 野菜を食べさせる (tabesaseru) would tend to refer to a more indirect sort of making (or allowing, situation depending) someone to eat vegetables, perhaps through coersion.
- 野菜を食べさす (tabesasu) would tend to refer to physically feeding (possibly force-feeding, situation depending) the person vegetables.
Japanese Wikipedia indicates that this alternate form is ungrammatical for する (suru), 来る (kuru), and ichidan (-ru) verbs, but a simple Google search shows that it's quite common regardless.
Conjugation table:
| Dictionary | Causative | Variant Causative |
|---|---|---|
| する (suru) | させる (saseru) | さす (sasu) |
| 来る (kuru) | 来させる (kosaseru) | 来さす (kosasu) |
| -u verb | change -u to -a and add せる (seru) | change -u to -a and add す (su) |
| -ru verb | change る (ru) to させる (saseru) | change る (ru) to さす (sasu) |
| 飲む (nomu) | 飲ませる (nomaseru) | 飲ます (nomasu) |
| 迎える (mukaeru) | 迎えさせる (mukaesaseru) | 迎えさす (mukaesasu) |
The resulting causative form verb then conjugates as a regular -ru verb, while the alternate causative form verb conjugates as a regular -u verb ending in -su.
Causative-Passive (-asareru, -saserareru)
Causative-passive is just what it sounds like... a causative sentence in passive form. That is, instead of saying that X makes Y do Z as in a normal causative sentence, it says that Y is made to do Z by X. Like normal passive, this changes the emphasis and tends to add a sense of victimization. The 'victim' is marked with the topic marker は (wa) or subject marker が (ga), and the 'slave-driver' with the particle に (ni).
- 「先生に発表させられた！」 (Sensei ni happyou saserareta!) = "I was forced to do a presentation by my teacher!"
- 「ジムはお母さんに薬を飲まされました。」 (JIMU wa okaasan ni kusuri wo nomasaremashita.) = "Jim was forced by his mother to take medicine."
The causative-passive is just the causative form also put into passive form, except that the trailing ～せられる (-serareru) is often shortened to ～される (-sareru), unless that would cause a double さ (sa), and sometimes even then. This is probably derived from the alternate causative form.
Conjugation table:
| Dictionary | Causative-Passive |
|---|---|
| する (suru) | させられる (saserareru) or さされる (sasareru) |
| 来る (kuru) | 来させられる (kosaserareru) or 来さされる (kosasareru) |
| -u verbs | change -u to -a and add せられる (serareru) or される (sareru) |
| -ru verbs | cahnge る (ru) to させられる (saserareru) or さされる (sasareru) |
| 渡す (watasu) | 渡させられる (watasaserareru) or 渡さされる (watasasareru) |
| 転ぶ (korobu) | 転ばせられる (korobaserareru) or 転ばされる (korobasareru) |
| 落ちる (ochiru) | 落ちさせられる (ochisaserareru) or 落ちさされる (ochisasareru) |
The resulting causative-passive form verb conjugates as a regular -ru verb.
Commands (-nasai, -e, -yo, -ro, -na)
Though it's normally better to make requests instead of giving orders, there are times and situations when commands are appropriate. That, and they're used all the time in anime.
First off, the relatively nice commands... Add ～なさい (-nasai) to a verb stem to create a command with the connotation that the commanding person knows better and is, generally speaking, giving the order for the commanded person's own good. Parents talking to children and teachers talking to students often use this form.
- 「もう十時ですよ。寝なさい。」 (Mou juuji desu yo. Nenasai.) = "It's already ten o'clock. Go to bed."
- 「この単語を習いなさい。」 (Kono tango wo narainasai.) = "Learn this vocabulary."
There is no common negative form, but -te wa ikemasen ("must not do") is comparable. The uncommon negative form is to add ～なさるな (-nasaru na) to the verb stem, but I can't recall ever encountering it outside of conjugation charts.
Of course, there are also not-so-nice commands. These are a bit more complicated, but they're also briefer and sound more like orders. These blunt commands are the kind most often used in anime, and are the way a drill sergeant might talk.
- 「死ね！」 (Shine!) = "Die!"
- 「電車を止めろ！」 (Densha wo tomero!) = "Stop the train!"
- 「行くな！」 (Iku na!) = "Don't go!"
There are situations in which this form isn't rude, such as when cheering someone on with a verb they would want to do anyway. In general, however, it should be avoided.
In addition, since honorific verbs are, after all, honorific, their command forms are not rude either. In particular, いらっしゃい (irasshai = come/go) is a common welcome in stores, ください (kudasai = give) is often used in requests, and なさい (nasai = do) is used in the gentler commands explained above, as well as in idiomatic expressions such as お休みなさい (oyasuminasai = "good night").
Conjugation table:
| Dictionary | Do it! | Don't! |
|---|---|---|
| する (suru) | しろ (shiro) or せよ (se yo) | add ～な (-na) to the dictionary form |
| 来る (kuru) | 来い (koi) | |
| old-style -aru verbs | change final ～る (-ru) to ～い (-i) | |
| -u verbs | change final -u to -e | |
| -ru verbs | change final ～る (-ru) to ～ろ (-ro) or the somewhat milder (and less conventional) ～よ (-yo) | |
| いらっしゃる (irassharu) | いらっしゃい (irasshai) | いらっしゃるな (irassharu na) |
| 取る (toru) | 取れ (tore) | 取るな (toru na) |
| 見る (miru) | 見ろ (miro) or 見よ (miyo) | 見るな (miru na) |
Conditional (-tara)
To turn a verb into the conditional form, just add ら (ra) to the end of the past affirmative form (to make a positive condition) or past negative form (to make a negative condition), for all verbs. Note that the short past form is usually used as the base. Using the long forms is not incorrect, but sounds very formal, excessively so for normal usage.
A sentence in the form "P (positive conditional verb) Q" means that Q will happen once P does. If P is fairly likely to happen or almost definitely will, it's essentially the same as "Q when P". If P may or may not happen, it's closer to "Q if P", but is only used when P happens before Q does. P can even be entirely false, which is used to describe hypothetical situations (the entire sentence is usually followed by が (ga), けど (kedo), でしょう (deshou), or something similar in this case to make it more tentative or speculative). In any case, P happening means that Q will happen too, but only after P does.
A negative conditional works the other way. In a sentence P (negative conditional verb) Q, P not happening means that Q will happen. Negative conditionals frequently appear when describing what would have happened if something hadn't occurred.
Note that this indicates nothing at all about whether the condition is true or not, nor anything about what happens if the condition is false.
- 「起きたらメールをチェックします。」 (Okitara MEERU wo CHEKKU shimasu.) = "I check my e-mail when I get up." or "I will check my e-mail once I get up."
- 「雨が降らなかったらもう町に出かけているのに。」 (Ame ga furanakattara mou machi ni dekakete iru no ni.) = "I'd be out in town already if it hadn't rained."
- 「ゴジラだったら、東京をスナックにするけど。」 (GOJIRA dattara, Toukyou wo SUNAKKU ni suru.) = "If I were Godzilla, I'd make a snack out of Tokyo."
The key difference between this form and other constructs, such as the provisional form, that roughly translate to "if P, then Q" is the emphasis on time. Q does not happen until after P does. Note particularly that in the first example above, there is little if any cause-effect relationship between P and Q, just the fact that I check my e-mail only after I get up.
Suggestions:
The conditional form is also one way to make suggestions. Express the suggestion with a conditional verb at the end and follow with どうですか (dou desu ka). Casual language may use just どう (dou) or どうだ (dou da), or simply end with the conditional verb and a rising intonation (and question mark if written). The literal translation is roughly, "what would happen if...?" or "how would it be if..."
- 「そろそろ食べに行ったらどうですか。」 (Sorosoro tabe ni ittara dou desu ka.) = "Why don't we go eat about now?"
- (from Final Fantasy 6) 「返事くらいしたらどうだ？」 (Henji kurai shitara dou da?) = "How about you respond, at least?"
Provisional (-eba)
To turn a verb into the provisional form, just change the ending -u in the dictionary form to -eba, or change the ～ない (-nai) in the short nonpast negative form to ～なければ (-nakereba) to make the negative provisional form.
A sentence in the form "P (provisional verb) Q" means that Q is true if P is true. Using this form indicates that situation P leads to result Q, and has some implication that any situation other than P is unlikely to yield Q, though it doesn't go so far as demanding that P must be true for Q to be true. It is less often used when Q is not a good outcome, or when the cause-effect relationship between P and Q is fairly weak (try the conditional form instead for those). Putting a verb in provisional form and adding いい (ii = good) or some other, often equally vague, desirable result is one way to advise an action.
- 「諦めなければ、卒業できるんですよ。」 (Akiramenakereba, sotsugyou dekiru n desu yo.) = "If I don't give up, I can graduate." (some implication that it's hopeless if I do give up)
- 「宿題をすればいいんだ。」 (Shukudai wo sureba ii n da.) = "You should do your homework." or "Things will be fine if you do your homework." (some implication that they won't be fine unless you do your homework)
Must do:
The negative provisional form followed by one of several generic negatives is one way to say that an action must be taken (i.e., if don't do, not good). Refer to the -te form + ikenai for further details.
Regret:
To say that something that didn't happen would have been better off happening, or that something that happened would have been better off not, use a good result in the past tense, usually よかった (yokatta), after the provisional form. This usage is often followed with のに (no ni) or other contrasting forms to highlight the difference between what might have been and what actually is.
- 「もっと勉強すればよかったのに…」 (Motto benkyou sureba yokatta no ni...) = "I wish I'd studied more..." or "Things would have been fine if I had studied more..." (but apparently I didn't and they aren't.)
- 「食堂に食べなければよかったですが。」 (Shokudou ni tabenakereba yokatta desu ga.) = "I should not have eaten at the dining hall." or "It would have been better if I had not eaten at the dining hall."
- 「あの赤いボタンを押せばよかった。」 (Ano akai BOTAN wo oseba yokatta.) = "I should've hit that red button."
Note the difference between this and the similar phrase -te form + yokatta to express satisfaction with something that did turn out well:
- 「あの赤いボタンを押さなくてよかった。」 (Ano akai BOTAN wo osanakute yokatta.) = "Good thing I didn't hit that red button."
Shortening:
It seems that many people find ～なければ (-nakereba) to be cumbersome, as there are at least three shorter variants. ～ねば (-neba) seems to be more literary, while ～なきゃ (-nakya) and ～なけりゃ (-nakerya) are contractions common in casual speech.
Similar to:
There seem to be some slight differences in nuance, but the provisional form is very similar in function to the particle なら (nara) as used after a verb.
Alternative Form (-tari)
To list actions as examples and indicate that it's not a complete list, attach り (ri) to the short past affirmative of each action. You then usually end the chain with a する (suru) after the last ～り. This gives an "and so on" sort of meaning, or alternately, a "some of this, some of that" meaning. The phrase formed can be used anywhere a simple verb can be, and only する changes its conjugation.
- 「買い物したり、友達に会ったりしました。」 (Kaimono shitari, tomodachi ni attari shimashita.) = "I went shopping, saw some friends, and so forth."
- 「歌ったりしるのが好き。」 (Utattari suru no ga suki.) -- I like doing things such as singing.
This isn't the only use of the form; I've seen a number of situations in which it's followed by して (shite), often だったりして (dattari shite), at the end of a sentence and seems to mean "what if" or "could be", but haven't been able to find any confirmation other than seeing occasional sentences that use it. This usage may also use negatives by adding り to the past negative form.
つもり (tsumori)
Plans and intentions:
To describe plans or intentions, just add つもり to the short nonpast form of a verb. The result then conjugates as a -na adjective. To indicate plans not to do something, just use the short nonpast negative instead of the affirmative. Use the past forms of the copula after つもり to indicate past intentions.
- 「映画を見るつもりです。」 (Eiga wo miru tsumori desu.) = "I plan on seeing the movie."
- 「映画を見ないつもり。」 (Eiga wo minai tsumori.) = "I don't intend to see the movie."
- 「映画を見るつもりでした。」 (Eiga wo miru tsumori deshita.) = "I meant to to see the movie."
- 「どういうつもりだ？」 (Dou iu tsumori da?) = "What's the big idea?"
つもり is normally used only in affirmative forms (plans to not do negate the verb, as explained above), but can be negated in some situations. Most often this is in an apologetic sense, to explain that the outcome was not the intent.
- 「そういうつまりじゃなかったんだ！」 (Sou iu tsumori ja nakatta n da!) = "That's not how I meant it to happen!"
事がある (koto ga aru)
Have done:
To describe something you have (or haven't) done, add 事がある to the short past affirmative and conjugate ある (aru) appropriately.
- 「日本に行った事があります。」 (Nihon ni itta koto ga arimasu.) = "I have traveled to Japan."
- 「ジムはカレー食べた事ない。」 (JIMU wa KAREE tabeta koto nai.) = "Jim has never eaten curry."
方がいい (hou ga ii)
Ought to do:
To say that something ought to be done, or is advisable to do, add 方がいい to a short past affirmative verb. To say that something ought not be done, or is inadvisable, add 方がいい to the short nonpast negative. Notice that the past tense is used for positives and the nonpast for negatives.
- 「野菜を食べたほうがいいです。」 (Yasai wo tabeta hou ga ii desu.) = "It is advisable to eat vegetables." or "You should eat your vegetables."
- 「クラスで寝ないほうがいいんだよ。」 (KURASU de nenai hou ga ii n da yo.) = "You'd better not sleep in class."
ばかり (bakari)
Just did:
To say that an action has just happened, follow the short past affirmative with ばかり (bakari). It might be gramatically possible to used the negative past, but I can't think of any situation in which that would make any sense.
- 「食べたばかり」 (tabeta bakari) = "just ate"
Not to be confused with:
The particle ばかり (bakari) follows nouns, -te form verbs, and so on, and gives an impression of something being overwhelmingly common, frequent, etc.
The longer ばかりでなく (bakari de naku) and ばかりか (bakari ka) are variants on the particle and translate to "not just... but also"
There are two different meanings for the phrase ばかりに (bakari ni). One is roughly "just because" and, like ばかり here, usually comes after a short past affirmative verb. The other roughly means "as if to do" and usually appears in phrases such as 言わんばかりに (iwan bakari ni).
ばかりに (bakari ni)
Just because:
To say that a (bad) result happens thanks to one cause (mistake), follow the cause, ending in a short past affirmative or past negative verb, with ばかりに (bakari ni), then the outcome.
- 「寝坊したばかりに遅刻しちゃったんだ。」 (Nebou shita bakari ni chikoku shichatta n da) = "I was late just because I overslept."
Not to be confused with:
The particle ばかり (bakari) follows nouns, -te form verbs, and so on, and gives an impression of something being overwhelmingly common, frequent, etc.
After a short past affirmative verb, ばかり (bakari) without に (ni) indicates that an action has just happened.
The longer ばかりでなく (bakari de naku) and ばかりか (bakari ka) are variants on the particle and translate to "not just... but also"
There are two different meanings for the phrase ばかりに (bakari ni). The other one roughly means "as if to do" and usually appears in phrases such as 言わんばかりに (iwan bakari ni).
For "just because P doesn't necessarily mean Q", see からと言って (kara to itte).
(言わん)ばかりに ((iwan) bakari ni)
As if to:
Take a short nonpast negative verb, replace the ～ない (-nai) with ～ん (-n), and add ばかりに (bakari ni) to form a phrase that means roughly "as though trying to" or "as if to". The verb conjugation is actually an archaic volitional form not otherwise used in the modern language. Any verb that makes sense may be used, but 言う (iu = say) is the most common.
- 「疲れたと言わんばかりにソファに沈みました」 (Tsukareta to iwan bakari ni SOFA ni shizumimashita.) = "He sank into the sofa as if to say he was tired out."
- Here's an example from Harry Potter: 「この質問でとうとうハーマイオニーは椅子から立ち上がり、地下牢の天井に届かんばかりに手を伸ばした。」 (Kono shitsumon de toutou HAAMAIONII wa isu kara tachiagari, chikarou no tenjou ni todokan bakari ni te wo nobashita.) The corresponding line from the original English version reads, "At this, Hermione stood up, her hand stretching toward the dungeon ceiling." This doesn't demonstrate the grammar point, though, so a more literal translation is in order: "At this question, Hermione finally stood from her chair, extending her hand as though trying to reach the dungeon ceiling."
と言わんばかりに (to iwan bakari ni) may be shortened to とばかりに (to bakari ni).
- 「『ほっとけ』とばかりに睨んだ。」 ('Hottoke' to bakari ni niranda.) = "He glared as if to say 'butt out.'"
Not to be confused with:
The particle ばかり (bakari) follows nouns, -te form verbs, and so on, and gives an impression of something being overwhelmingly common, frequent, etc.
After a short past affirmative verb, ばかり (bakari) without に (ni) indicates that an action has just happened.
The longer ばかりでなく (bakari de naku) and ばかりか (bakari ka) are variants on the particle and translate to "not just... but also"
There are two different meanings for the phrase ばかりに (bakari ni). The other one is roughly "just because" and usually comes after a short past affirmative verb.
