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General
Buddhism |
Namo Dharmaya!
Hail to the Teachings
THE THREE VEHICLES
CONTENTS
Introduction
The Three Councils
Theravada and Hinayana
Mahayana
Tantrayana
In order to clarify the variations between the many different schools and traditions of Buddhism, the schools are often divided into the three Yanas (Skt.), meaning Vehicles or Paths. These three are; the Hinayana, Mahayana and Tantrayana. Within the various vehicles, much variation can still exist, which is further explained in the pages that deal with the traditions of the various countries, like India, China, Japan and Tibet. A major reason for this development of different schools within Buddhism may be that the Buddha taught for decades. Given the vast amount of teachings it is not easy to unanimously decide what the exact interpretation of all teachings should be. Depending on who the Buddha would be teaching, the explanation would be quite different and sometimes seemingly contradictory. This can be understood as skilful means; a satisfying explanation to a learned philosopher is obviously more complex than to an uneducated person. On top of this, the Buddha clearly stated that he did not just intend to teach a doctrine, but intended to show the path that people can follow for their own development. This intention ultimately leads to the point where every individual has to decide which practices to follow and how to interpret the teachings, rather than adhering to a fixed doctrine.
Below explanation of the councils is mainly derived from Ven. Dr. W. Rahula's "Gems of Buddhist Wisdom", also: from: http://online.anu.edu.au/asianstudies/textnotes/buddhism.html From: http://www.saigon.com/~anson/ebud/ebdha125.htm and "A Concise History of Buddhism" by Andrew Skilton (Windhorse 1994).
The First Council
Three months after the Buddha's Mahaparinirvana (passing away), his immediate
disciples convened a council at Rajagaha. Maha Kassapa, the most respected and
senior monk, presided at the Council. Two very important personalities who specialised
in the two areas of the teachings:
- The Dharma: Ananda, the closest constant companion and disciple of
the Buddha for 25 years. Endowed with a remarkable memory, Ananda was able to
recite what was spoken by the Buddha.
- The Vinaya: Upali remembered all the Vinaya rules.
Only these two sections - the Dharma and the Vinaya - were recited at the First
Council. Though there were no differences of opinion on the Dharma (no mention
was made of the Abhidharma) there was some discussion about the Vinaya rules.
Before the Buddha's Parinirvanana, he had told Ananda that if the Sangha wished
to amend or modify some minor rules, they could do so. But Ananda forgot to
ask the Buddha what the minor rules were. As the members of the Council were
unable to agree as to what constituted the minor rules, Maha Kassapa finally
ruled that no disciplinary rule laid down by the Buddha should be changed, and
no new ones should be introduced. No intrinsic reason was given. Maha Kassapa
did say one thing, however: "If we changed the rules, people will say that Ven.
Gotama's disciples changed the rules even before his funeral fire has ceased
burning."
At the Council, the Dharma was divided into various parts and each part was
assigned to an Elder and his pupils to commit to memory. The Dharma was then
passed on from teacher to pupil orally. The Dharma was recited daily by groups
of people who regularly cross-checked with each other to ensure that no omissions
or additions were made.
The Second Council
According to the Theravadin school (Rahula), about one hundred years after
the Buddha's passing away, the Second Council was held to discuss some Vinaya
rules, and no controversy about the Dharma was reported. The orthodox monks
(Sthavarivada) said that nothing should be changed while the others insisted
on modifying some rules. Finally, a group of monks left the Council and formed
the Mahasanghika - the Great Community. (The Mahasanghika should not to be confused
with Mahayana.)
According to another version (Skilton), the Second Council may have had two
parts: initially in Vaisali, some 60 years after the Buddha, and 40 years after
that, a meeting in Pataliputra, where Mahadeva maintained five theses on the
Arhat. The actual split may have occurred at Pataliputra, not Vaisali over details
of the Vinaya. In the non-Theravadin version of events, the Mahasangha followed
the original vinaya and the Sthaviravada (the Elders) wanted changes. What exactly
happende is unlikely to be ever revealed, but the first split in the Sangha
was a fact.
The Third Council
During the reign of Emperor Asoka in the 3rd Century BCE, the Third Council was held to discuss the differences of opinion among the bhikkhus of different sects. At this Council differences of opinion were not confined to the Vinaya, but also concerned the Dharma. The President of the Council, Moggaliputta Tissa, compiled a book called the Kathavatthu which refuted the heretical, false views and theories held by some sects occuring at the time. The teaching approved and accepted by this Council became known as Sthaviras or Theravada, "Teaching of the Elders". The Abhidhamma Pitaka was included at this Council. After the Third Council, King Asoka sent missionaries to Sri Lanka, Kanara, Karnataka, Kashmir, Himalaya region, Burma, even nowadays Afghanistan. Asoka's son, Ven. Mahinda, brought the Tripitaka to Sri Lanka, along with the commentaries that were recited at the Third Council. These teachings later became known as the "Pali-canon".
As mentioned above, the Theravada tradition is based on the set of teachings decided by the Third Council to contain the teachings of the Buddha.
The term Hinayana (smaller vehicle) appeared only much later, around the first
century CE, when teachings of a different nature appeared which were called
Mahayana (greater Vehicle).
In India, Hinayana sects developed independent from the form of Buddhism existing
in Sri Lanka. Today, there is no Hinayana sect in existence anywhere. The ultimate
goal of the Theravadin and other non-Mahayana practice is to attain the state
of an Arhat, as Buddhahood is considered practically unachievable for
nearly everyone within this aeon.
Although helping other sentient beings is accepted as an important Buddhist
practice, the main motivation for following the spiritual path is to achieve
liberation for oneself. Due to the negative connotation of the term Hinayana,
the World Fellowship of Buddhists decided that the term Hinayana should be dropped
to refer to Buddhism existing today, and the term Theravada should be applied.
Shri Lanka has played a central role in preserving the Theravada scriptures
and practices. After the Third Council, the Tripitaka collection of sutras were
taken to Shri Lanka. Most of these were originally in the Pali language, but
some were compiled in other languages. Through the centuries however, all teachings
were translated into Pali. Initially most ordained sangha were known as parivrajahas
(wanderers). They would assemble during the rainy season when traveling became
problematic. Gradually, buildings were donated and the Sangha became more static.
Just a century after the Buddha passed away, monasteries became the main mechanism
for preservation of the teachings. Also extra monastic rules were introduced.
Only during one short period in history, Buddhism was banned in Shri Lanka,
but was later restored with teachings from Thailand which in turn had originated
in Shri Lanka. The main countries where the Theravada tradition is currently
alive and well in Shri Lanka, Thailand, Burma, Cambodia and Laos.
The teachings on the Four Noble Truths and meditation form the basis of Theravada
and Hinayana practice.We must not confuse Hinayana with Theravada because the
terms are not synonymous. Theravada Buddhism went to Sri Lanka during the 3rd
Century B.C. when there was no Mahayana at all.
The Mahayana appears to have developed between the 1st Century BC to the 1st Century CE. About the 2nd Century CE Mahayana became clearly defined. Nagarjuna developed the Mahayana philosophy of Sunyata and proved that everything is Void in a small text called Madhyamika-karika. After the 1st Century CE., the Mahayanists took a definite stand and only then the terms of Mahayana and Hinayana were introduced.
Around the first century CE, teachings of a different style appeared. The
terms Mahayana and Hinayana appeared in the Saddharma Pundarika Sutra or the
Sutra of the Lotus of the Good Law. Of great influence to the development of
the Mahayana was Master Nagarjuna (2nd Century CE) who is known for his profound
teachings on the philosophy of emptiness. About the 4th Century CE, the Masters
Asanga and Vasubandhu wrote enormous amount of works on Mahayana. The Mahayana
teachings were mainly written down in Sanskrit, and are now called the Mahayana
Sutras.
A clear division arose between the schools following the traditional teachings
and Mahayana. Although the main philosophical differences may be small, they
have profound consequences for the practices involved.
The Mahayana philosophy is based on the older tradition and fully accepts these
teachings, but not all traditional interpretations. One of the most important
aspects is for example the traditional interpretation that Buddhahood can be
achieved only by very few people. The Mahayana teaches instead that every sentient
being (being with a mind) can become a Buddha, the only thing preventing our
full enlightenment is the failure to improve one's own actions and state of
mind. The Mahayana tradition claims that all their sutras have been taught directly
by Shakyamuni Buddha or have at least been inspired by the Buddha.
The main Mahayana motivation is to lead all sentient beings to enlightenment.
Liberation from cyclic existence (Nirvana) and Buddhahood for oneself are regarded
simply as fortunate by-products of one's efforts to help all beings. In fact,
the only possible motivation with which one can become a Buddha is the altruistic
wish to lead all sentient beings away from suffering.
This motivation is reflected in taking an additional set of vows, known as Bodhisattva
vows on top of taking Refuge. The main vow is to free all sentient beings
from suffering. These vows are not taken for this life only, but for all future
lives as well, until this goal is achieved. The main practices of a Mahayanist
are summarised in the 6 perfections: the perfection of giving, ethics,
patience, joyous effort, concentration and wisdom.
The Mahayana tradition mainly developed in North India, and spread further North
into China and Tibet. In China, Buddhist philosophy and practice was often mixed
with Taoist and Confucian aspects. Via China, Mahayana Buddhism also spread
to other countries like Korea, Vietnam, Cambodia, Laos and Japan. Also, in China
the Ch'an tradition evolved, which was introduced into Japan, and there developed
into Zen.
Around the 6th. century AD, within the Mahayana tradition the tantras or tantric
texts emerged. Based firmly on the Hinayana and Mahayana tradition, the actual
philosophy differs only slightly from the Mahayana, but the practices can be
quite different.
Prior to engaging in tantric practices, a proper understanding of the Hinayana
and Mahayana philosophy is considered essential. Only then should one obtain
initiation or permission from a qualified tantric master to do a specific tantric
practice.
Tantric practices are psychologically very profound techniques to quickly achieve
Buddhahood. This is considered important, not for oneself, but because as a
Buddha one has the best achievable qualities to help others. The motivation
is: the faster I can achieve Buddhahood, the sooner I can be of maximum benefit
to others.
Depending on the class of tantra, more vows may need to be taken on top of the
Refuge and Bodhisattva vows. Also, specific commitments may be required like
doing a specific retreat, daily recitation of mantras or a daily meditation
practice. (For more details see the page on Tantra.)
In the 8th. century, the Mahayana and Vajrayana traditions of (North) Indian
Buddhism were introduced into Tibet. In fact, only in Tibet, Bhutan and Mongolia
a virtually complete set of tantric teachings was preserved. The Tibetan tradition
can also be found in the Himalayan range of Ladakh (North-west India), Sikkhim
(North-east India) and Nepal, and in Mongolia (which is vitually identical to
the Tibetan tradition). In China and countries like Korea and Japan, remnants
of Vajrayana can be found.
Click for a web site with an extensive history and philosophy of Buddhism.
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Last updated: January 26, 2001
