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Part 2 from O to Z 



A
Note of the scale. A440 (440 cycles per second) is commonly used for
tuning the orchestra. Also, an analytical term for the first section of a piece.

abend (Ger.) 
Evening.

abendlied (Ger.)
Evening song.

absolute music
Music composed simply as music, with no references to
emotions, stories, paintings or any other non-musical subject.

absolute pitch
Perfect pitch. The ability to recognize or recallany note.

abstract music
Same as absolute music.

accelerando (It.) 
Getting gradually quicker.

accent
Emphasizing a musical sound or note by playing it slightly louder.

acciaccatura (It.)
A crushed dissonant note of the shortest possible
duration played before or after the main note or chord and immediately 
released.

accidental
In music notation, a temporary alteration to a particular note,
raising it or lowering from its normal pitch only to the bar in which the 
accidental occurs. It is indicated by a sharp, flat, double sharp, double flat or 
natural sign preceding a particular note.

accompaniment
Harmonic or melodic support to the principal melody in
music. It is often made up of decorative or textural music, or sometimes 
simple chords. The accompaniment often comes to the forefront of the music, 
but its role is essentially to be supportive.

acoustics
The sound qualities of a listening space, such as a concert hall or
theatre. The factors affecting acoustics have been studied by scientists and 
engineers who have tried to document the variables that contribute to 
satisfying sound for both the performing musicians and the audience. This 
developing science, working with things such as the dimensions and 
construction materials of a structure, has been used with varying success in 
the design of new concert halls.

adagio (It.)
Slow speed. Often used as the title of a slow movement in
Sonatas and similar pieces of music.

a deux cordes (Fr.), a due corde (It.)
On two strings.

ad lib
Play a passage with freedom as to rhythm and tempo.

affettuoso (It.)
With feeling.

agitato (It.)
Restless and wild.

agogic
Used of deviations from the strict tempo and rhythm necessary for
the subtle performance of a musical phrase.

air
A simple tune for voice or instrument.

alberti bass
A keyboard moving figuration for the left hand using simple
arpeggio treatment of a series of chords. This was much used by 18th and 
early 19th century composers.

aleatoric music
Music containing chance or random elements. A trend
since 1945 with composers like John Cage and Karlheinz Stockhausen.

al fine (It.)
To the end.

alla (It.)
To the, at the, in the manner of.

alla breve (It.)
Take the half note as the main unit, not the quarter note (e.g.
2/2 instead of 4/4).

allargando (It.)
Getting broader.

alla turca (It.)
In the Turkish style (e.g. Mozart's Rondo alla turca).

alla zingarese (It.)
In the style of gypsy music.

allegretto (It.)
Slower than allegro.

allegro (It.)
Fast and lively.

Allegro non troppo
Fast but not too fast.

allemande (Fr.)
(1) A moderately slow dance movement often opening the
Baroque suite in 4/4 time. (2) A brisk dance in triple time current in the late
18th and early 19th centuries. A prototype of the waltz.

antiphon (Gk.) 
The plainsong setting of sacred words sung as responses in
Roman Catholic or Greek orthodox services. The term antiphonal derives from 
the practice of alternating performances between sets of singers stationed 
apart.

appassionato (It.)
Impassioned.

appoggiatura (It.)
A musical ornament (chiefly 18th century) of an
auxiliary note falling or rising to a harmonised note. It can be written or 
unwritten.

arabesque (Fr. and Eng.), arabeske (Ger.)
A short piece with decorative
qualities (e.g. Debussy, Arabesques).

aria (It.)
Air or song for one or more voices found in opera and oratorio. A
da capo aria is one in which the first section is finally repeated after a 
contrasting section.

arietta (It.)
A little or light aria.

arioso (It.)
Similar to an aria.

arpeggio (It.)
A chord performed with the notes separated.

arrangement
A re-write of an existing piece of music into a different style
or combination of instruments\voices.

atonal
Music which is composed without reference to a key (e.g. major,
minor or modal). All the expected devices for musical composition, such as 
melody, chords, rhythm, can be used. However, other methods of tonal 
organization (including mathematical patterns) are used.

attacca (It.)
Go on to the next section without a repeat.

augmentation
The lengthening (e.g. doubling) of note time values. The
melody may be made of the same pitches, for example, but with longer time 
values, has a different musical and emotional effect.

ayre
A song for one or several voices in 17th century England.

B
Note of the scale

badinage or badinerie (Fr., 'playfulness')
This term was used as a title
movement in quick 2/4 time in the 18th century suite (e.g. Bach's Suite in B
minor for flute and strings.

bagatelle (Fr., 'trifle')
Usually a short and light piano piece. Beethoven
wrote 26 (e.g. Fur Elise).

ballad
A traditional solo song telling a story with music repeated for each
verse. In the l9th century the term came to mean a rather sentimental drawing-
room song. However, it may also be applied to a self-contained narrative song 
(e.g. Schubert's Erlkonig or to operatic arias (e.g. Senta's Song from The 
Flying Dutchman by Wagner. It describes a sentimental song in jazz.

ballade
Chopin's term for a long, dramatic piano piece suggesting a story.
His Four Ballades are inspired by the poems of Mickiewicz. Brahms, Grieg, 
Liszt and others later used the title.

bar
The metrical division of music into groups of beats, and marked by
vertical barlines drawn across the musical staff. Also known as 'measure'. Its 
main purposes are to indicate the placement of rhythmic emphasis and to be a 
visual aid to musicians. A double bar (two vertical lines close together) 
indicates the end of a piece, or section.

barcarolle (Fr. from It.) 
A song or piece of instrumental music in a
swaying 6/8 or 12/8 time associated with the Venetian gondoliers.

baritone 
Male voice between bass and tenor with a range of two octaves
from G (on bottom line bass clef) to G (above middle C). The term is also a 
prefix for instruments indicating the range below the tenor type (e.g. baritone 
saxophone.

baroque 
The musical period approximately between 1600 and 1750
encompassing composers such as Monteverdi, Frescobaldi and Gabrieli (early 
baroque) and Bach and Handel (late baroque). It is characterized by elaborate 
treatment of melody in polyphonic style.

bass 
Bass can refer to the lowest sounding male voice, or the largest bowed
string instrument. Generally, it refers to music written in the low range of 
notes and notated in the Bass Clef. In piano music, this means the lower part 
of the keyboard played by the left hand.

basso (It., 'bass') 
Basso cantanle describes a lyrical singing voice; basso
conlinuo is the same as continuo and basso ostinato is the same as ground 
bass.

berceuse (Fr., 'bercer' to rock) 
An instrumental cradle song or lullaby in
compound duple time (e.g. Chopin's Berceuse).

bergamasque (Fr.), bergamasca (It.), bergomask (Eng.)
A peasant's dance from Bergamo, north Italy, with 2 beats to the bar. Composers
have used the term in titles, (e.g. Debussy's Suite Bergamasque).

binary form 
A simple composition in two balanced sections. After
beginning in one key, the first section shifts to some other related key. The 
second section, in the new key, then works its way back to the original key. If 
the original key is a minor one, then the flrst section ends with the relative 
major. Such compositions are usually short. 

bitonality 
A 20th century concept of using two keys simultaneously,
evident in Stravinsky's music.

bolero (Sp.) 
A Spanish dance performed to the dancers' singing with
castanets in simple triple time.

bourree (Fr.)
A popular fast dance of the 18th and l9th centuries. It began
with an upbeat, had two beats to the bar and was often found in dance suites. 

brace
The line with bracket joining two staves in piano music.

bravura (It.)
A display of a musical passage requiring great virtuosity by the
performer.

brillant (Fr.), brillante (It.)\Brilliant.
Usually a direction for solo performers.

broken chord 
A chord in which notes are sounded one after the other,
rather than all together.

broken octaves
Alternate notes played an octave apart, frequently used in piano music.

C\Note of the scale

cadence
A progression of chords in music designed to produce a closing
effect, such as at the end of phrases, sections or the composition. Over the 
years, some chord progressions have come to be known as a standard 
cadences.

cadenza (It.)
A solo passage before the final cadence, generally occurring
in the first or last movement in the classical concerto. It suggests 
improvisation of the main themes and a display of the soloist's virtuosity. 
However, Mozart and other composers since have taken no chances with the 
performer's improvisational skills and have written out their cadenzas in a 
style that matched the concerto.

canon
A contrapuntal work in which a melody, stated by one voice (or
part) is repeated by one or more voices in turn, each entering before the 
previous part has finished. This results in overlapping, similar to a type of 
music called the Round (e.g. Frere Jacques), but more formal and complex in 
construction. Although canons can be performed by a group of singers or 
instrumentalists, solo piano music can imitate many voices.

cantabile (It.) 
In a singing style.

cantata (It.)
Generally a vocal composition with instrumental accompaniment telling a
story by means of arias and recitatives. In the 17th and 18th centuries two 
types existed: cantata da camera which was secular and cantata da chiesa which 
was suitable for church. Writers of this period included Schutz and J.S. Bach 
who made the cantata more theatrical with the use of choruses, chorales and 
strings. In the 19th century the term described short narrative choral works 
accompanied by full-scale orchestra with arias, recitatives and soloists.
Modern writers include Bartok, Stravinsky and Britten.

cantilena (It. )
A smooth Iyrical melody line.

canzona (It., 'song')
A short, fairly polyphonic instrumental piece popular
in the 16th and 17th centuries. In the 18th century, Canzoni referred to short 
arias and similar short Iyrical instrumental pieces.

capriccio (It.), caprice (Fr.)
A short, light and lively pieces. In the 17th
century, the term referred to keyboard works in bright, fugal style. In the l9th 
century, it described piano pieces in rhapsodic style (e.g. by Brahms).

cedez (Fr.) 
Slow down.

chaconne (Fr.)
A vocal or instrumental composition in slow, stately three-
beat time with a ground bass, and popular in 17th century keyboard music and 
opera.

chaleur (Fr.) 
Warmth .

chamber music
Instrumental ensemble music with a limited number of
performers and with only one player per part, suitable for a small performing 
space (such as in a private home). Chamber music is often performed in small 
concert halls.

chamber sonata or sonata da camera (It.)
A type of suite prevalent in the
17th and 18th centuries mainly in the form of dance movements for two or 
more stringed instruments with keyboard accompaniment.

chanson (Fr.)
A song or an instrumental composition with a song-like
character.

chorale
A Lutheran metrical hymn tune often used by J.S. Bach.

chorale prelude 
An instrumental piece based on a chorale, usually
composed for organ.

chord
The sounding together of two or more notes, usually with harmonic
implication. Chord progressions are a series of chords that logically flow from 
one to the other.

chromatic
Music which makes heavy use of notes not belong to the scales
within the composition's key. A chromatic chord, for example, has notes 
foreign to the key. J.S. Bach's music is often very chromatic. Chromaticism 
commonplace in 19th century music, evolving to the point where the key is 
not always obvious.

classical music
A style of music in the late 18th century written by
composers such as Haydn and Mozart, characterized by clarity of texture, 
harmony and melody, as well as the refinement of abstract musical forms such 
as the sonata, symphony and concerto.

clef
The symbol to determine the relative position of notes on the musical
staff, placed normally at the beginning of each line, or whenever a different 
clef temporarily replaces the starting clef (to make notes fit more easily on the 
staff). There are many possible clefs (e.g. treble, bass, alto and tenor) chosen 
to accomodate the range of various instruments or voices. In piano music, the 
double staff (a staff for each hand) uses treble or bass clefs.

close harmony
Harmony in which notes of chords are written closely
together (e.g. in barbershop quartets).

cluster
A 20th century concept of playing a group of adjacent notes
simultaneously on the piano (e.g. with the forearm or a piece of wood. The 
usual term is tone cluster or note cluster. Pioneered by Cowell in 1912 and 
used by Ives.

coda (It.,'tail')
The concluding section at the end of a movement, not
usually of structural necessity. However, Beethoven's codas have great 
significance in his musical design.

codetta (It., 'little tail')
Similar to coda but on a smaller scale, eg. rounding
off a section of a movement as opposed to a whole movement.

coloratura (It.)
Agile and florid style of vocal performance.

common time
Four quarter notes to the bar, written 4/4 or C.

compound time
A type of metre where the beat units are divisible into three
(e.g. 6/8, 9/8, 12/8. Opposite of simple time.

con forza (It.)
With force, vigorously.

con fuoco (It.)
With fire.

con grandezza
with grandeur.

concertante
(1) A work for orchestra or for two or more instruments with
prominent solo parts. (2) The sinfonia-concertante is a work with a form 
nearer to a symphony than concerto but employing solo instruments and 
orchestra.

concertino
(1) A small and light textured concerto. (2) The soloist group in
the 17thand 18th century concerto grosso. (3) A less formally structured work 
than a concerto for one or more solo instruments with orchestra.

concerto
(1) A large-scale work, generally in three movements involving
solo instrument(s) contrasted with orchestra and standardised by Mozart. Also 
called solo concerto. (2) An orchestral work in several contrasting movements 
with or without solo instruments, often supported by figured bass in the 17th 
and 18th centuries.

concord
Pleasing to the ear and sounding harmonically resolved. However,
interpretations of this term vary considerably. The opposite is discord.

conduct
To direct a performance of either singers, players or both with a
baton or hands in order to give precise indications of dynamics, phrasing and 
speed.

consecutive intervals
Harmonic intervals of the same kind (e.g. thirds
succeeding one another in the same parts.

conservatoire (Fr.) or conservatory
A school for musical training.

consonance
Same as concord.

continuo (It.) 
Abbreviation of basso continuo. Same as figured bass.

contralto
The lower type of female voice having a range from F below
middle C to G above the treble clef.

contrapuntal 
Adjective from counterpoint.

corda, corde\String(s)
In piano playing, una corda (one string) indicates the
use of the soft (left) pedal. The term tre corde (three strings) cancels this, 
indicating the release of the soft pedal.

counterpoint
The sounding together of two or more separate parts of rhythmic and melodic
independence, in harmony. Invertible counterpoint occurs when any one melody 
strand can exchange its position for another (e.g. the bass becomes treble). 
Between two parts, this is called double counterpoint.

courante (Fr.)
A lively dance in triple time popular in the baroque period
and found in the suite.

crescendo (It.)
Getting gradually louder.

csardas (Hung.)
Hungarian dance in contrasting sections (slow and fast).

cycle
(1) A set of works, especially songs, intended to be performed as a
group with thematic connection (e.g. Schubert's song cycle Die Winterreise. 

cyclic form
A work in which a theme connects more than one movement.
Beethoven introduced it into symphonic music (e.g. in his Fifth symphony) 
and romantic composers developed it further.

cycle of fifths
a chain of perfect fifths which will lead back to the original
note (at a different octave) after working through the other eleven notes of the 
chromatic scale. It is useful for learning key signatures.

D
Note of the scale; Abbreviation for Deutsch in the cataloguing of works
by Schubert.

Da capo or DC
Repeat from the beginning.

Da capo al fine 
Repeat up to the word Fine (the end).

Da capo al segno
Repeat to the sign.

Dal segno
Repeat from the sign.

damping pedal
Piano soft (left) pedal.

decrescendo (It.)
Becoming gradually softer.

degree
Position of note in scale (e.g. D is the second degree of C major
scale).

development
The section of a movement when initial statements of themes
are expanded, developed, modified and broken up.

diatonic
Adjective describing major and minor scales and also modes. The
opposite of chromatic music which introduces notes not in the prevailing key. 
Diatonic harmonies, intervals, passages, etc. are made up of notes of the 
current key.

diminished triad
A triad in which the perfect fifth is reduced chromatically
by a semitone (e.g. A C and E flat.

diminuendo or dim.(It.)
Gradually becoming softer. See decrescendo.

diminution
The treatment of a melody by shortening the time values of
notes, usually by half (e.g. in fugues and canons).

discord
See concord.

dissonance
Same as discord (see concord).

divertimento (It.)
Usually an 18th century term for an entertaining suite of
movements for chamber ensemble or orchestra. Mozart wrote in this style.

divertissement (Fr., 'amusement')
(I) Entertainment in ballet form, sometimes with songs, found in operas or plays 
for contrast (e.g. the operas of Lully. (2) Same as divertimento. 
(3) Instrumental piece or fantasia employing popular tunes.

dodecaphonic music
Same as serial music.

dolce (It.)
Sweet and gentle.

dolcissimo 
Very sweetly.

dolente (lt.)
Sorrowful.

dominant
Fifth degree of the major or minor scale, or a triad built on it.

dominant seventh
Dominant triad with the addition of the seventh note
from its root. 

Doppio movimento
At double the speed of the preceding sectlon .

double bar
Two bar lines placed closely together to signify the end of a
composition or section.

double counterpoint
Invertible counterpoint in two parts occurring
frequently in fugues.

double flat
A prefix to a note indicating the pitch is to be lowered by two
semitones. 

double sharp
Prefix attached to note indicating pitch to be raised by two
semitones.

douce(ment) (Fr.)
Sweet (sweetly), gentle (gently).

downbeat
The downward movement of the conductor' s baton or hand
indicating the first beat of the bar. The term can also mean the first beat of the 
bar.

due corde (It.)
Two strings. In piano music this occasionally indicates the
release of the soft pedal (same as Tre Corde).

duet
A composition for two performers sometimes with accompaniment. A
piano duet is for two pianists on one piano.

duettino (It.)
A little duet.

duo
Same as duet but mainly an instrumental composition for two
performers. A piano duo is for two pianists on separate pianos.

duple time
Time in which the number of beats in the bar is divisible by two
or four (e.g. 2/4, 4/4, 2/2).

duplet
A pair of notes occupying time usually taken by three (e.g. 6/8 or
3/8).

dynamics
The degrees of softness or loudness in music indicated by signs
or words on the score.

clatant (Fr.)
(1) Brilliant, bright; (2) Blaring.

cossaise (Fr.)
Short for danse ecossaise. Although meaning Scottish dance,
the term is apparently not of Scottish origin. A quick dance in 2/4 time, it was
popular in Britain and on the Continent in the late 18th and early 19th 
centuries. Cultivated by Beethoven.

eilen (Ger.)
To hurry. Nicht cilen, do not hurry.

einfach (Ger.)
Simply.

eisteddfod (Welsh, 'assembly')
Music or competitive festival.

elegy
Song or instrumental composition for the dead.

embellishments
Same as ornaments.

embouchure (Fr.)
The correct position of lips to the mouthpiece of an
instrument to produce accurate intonation and good tone.

encha nez (Fr.)
Link together (e.g. go straight on to the next section or
movement without a break).

encore (Fr.)
Again. Refers to an extra selection performed by musicians
after a program in response to audience applause. French term is bis.


enharmonic
Refers to alternate naming or spelling of the same musical note
(e.g. A flat is the same as G sharp)

ensemble (Fr., 'together')
(l) A small group of performers (e.g. a vocal or
instrumental ensemble; (2) In opera, an ensemble is an selection for several 
soloists with or without chorus.

entr'acte (Fr.)
(I) Interval during a play or opera. (2) Music to be played
between the acts of a play or opera.

entree (Fr.)
Chiefly a 17th century French music term for (I) an
introductory piece for the entry of characters in ballet or opera; (2) an 
independent instrumental piece of similar nature; (3) the equivalent of a scene 
or act in ballet or opera.

entry
(I) The entrance of a theme in a fugue occurring not only at the
beginning but also at later stages in the composition. (2) A 17th century term 
for a prelude.

episode
(I) In a rondo, this is a contrasting section between episodical form
recurrences of the main theme. (2) In a fugue, it is a section linking (by means 
of contrast, modulation or possibly using subject material) one entry and 
another. In both contexts, an episode has a subordinate role.

episodical form
Same as rondo form.

equale (Old It., 'equal')
Piece or pieces (equali) for instruments of the same
kind.

espressivo (It.)
With expression.

estampie (Fr.)
A popular dance form in the 13th and 14th centuries
consisting of several sections (puncta) each of which has a first ending 
(ouvert) and a second ending (clos).

estinto (It., 'extinct')
Music to be played so that it is barely audible.

etouffez (Fr., 'damp')
Indication to harp or cymbal players, etc. that sound
must be immediately cut short.

etude (Fr., 'study')
An instrumental piece to improve or demonstrate certain
technical points. However, many etudes (such as those by Chopin) have great 
artistic merit.

exercise
(I) An instrumental or vocal piece intended to improve aspects of
technique and of no artistic value. (2) The term for a keyboard suite in the 
18th century. 

exposition
The initial statement of a musical theme or idea upon which a
rnovement or piece is based. In a fugue, the exposition is the initial statement 
of the subject by each voice in turn. The exposition is completed when each 
voice has been heard for the first time. In sonata form, it is a repeated section 
in which the main themes are first stated before moving on to the development 
section.

expressionism
A 20th century term borrowed from painting and applied to
other art forms implying a reaction against impressionism (e.g. the works of 
composers such as Debussy). Musically it is especially applied to the works 
of Schonberg, Berg and some compositions of Hindemith.

expression marks
Indications on the score provided by the composer to aid
accurate performance of a work and consisting of dynamics (e.g. degrees of 
loudness and softness), tempo and mood.

extemporisation
Same as improvisation.

F
(1) Note of the scale; (2) Abbreviation of forte.

f clef
Another name for bass clef.

facile (Fr. and It.)
Fasy, fluent.

Facilmente
Easily or fluently.

falsetto (It.)
Singing or speech by an adult male voice in a higher register
than normal. It is sometimes used for a comic effect and is used by tenors for 
notes above their normal range.

fandango (Sp.)
A lively Spanish dance in 3/4 or 6/8 time accompanied by
guitar, castanets and performers' singing. The fandango includes sudden stops 
and speed increases

fanfare
(I) A flourish for trumpets (or other imitating instruments) usually
for an introduction or proclamation; (2) French for brass band.

fantasia (It.), fantaisie (Fr.), fantasie (Ger.), fantasy (Eng.)
This style is generally associated with the abandoning of set rules for free flights
of the composer's imagination. Specific definitions include: (I) a romantic mood 
piece of the 19th century(e.g. by Schumann); (2) a contrapuntal piece, in 
several sections for one or many players, current in the 16th and 17th 
centuries, of improvisatory nature, with 'fancy' as an alternative name. The title 
phantasy was used for the 20th century revival of the form. 

fantasiestuck (Ger.)
A short piece similar to capriccio or intermezzo.

farandole (Fr.)
A dance of Provence in 6/8 time accompanied by pipe and tabor.

fausset (Fr.)
Falsetto.

fermata (It.)
Pause.

ff
Abbreviation of fortissimo meaning very loud

figure
A short musical phrase (not as long as a theme) which is
recognisable through repetition in a composition.

figured bass or basso continuo (It.)
The bass part (played on keyboard or other chordal instrument) with figures 
written below the notes indicating the harmonies to be played above them. 
This system was used greatly in the baroque period as an accompaniment for 
soloists or to enrich the general texture of a larger composition.

final
The note on which the melody ends in church modes. In authentic
modes, the final is on the tonic. In plagal modes, it falls on the fourth degree 
of the scale.

finale (It.)
Final. In English there are two main meanings: (1) the last
movement of a work in several movements; (2) the lengthy concluding section 
of an opera, often subdivided into smaller sections with contrasting tempos or 
keys. Involves several singers and often a chorus.

fine (It )
End. This term sometimes occurs in the middle of music, often
where there is an instruction to repeat an opening section. The directionfine 
indicates the end of a piece.

fino al segno (It.)
As far as the sign.

fioritura (It., 'a flowering')
Decoration of a melody with ornaments which
may be notated or improvised. Evident in 17th and 18th century Italian opera.

first movement form
An alternative name for sonata form.

flamenco or cante flamenco (Sp.)
An Andalusian song performed with guitar accompaniment and dancing of a mostly
sad nature. Various types of namenco exist and are named after districts
(e.g. malaguena and sevillana). Flamenco-style guitar employs quite different 
and forceful techniques compared to classical guitar playing.

flat
A lowering in pitch which may be a semitone, or a description of
someone singing or playing below normal pitch unintentionally. A double flat 
indicates a lowering of the pitch by two semitones.

flebile (It.)
Mournful .

fliessend (Ger.)
Flowing.

flourish
(I) Fanfare; (2) Decorative musical figuration notated or
improvlsed .

flutter-tongue
Extremely fast articulation of sound on a wind instrument by
the tongue, like trilling. 

forte (It.)
Loud. Abbreviated f.

fortissimo (It.)
Very loud. Abbreviated ff.

forza (It.)
Force.

forzando (It.)
Strongly accented. Abbreviated fz.

foxtrot
Originally an American dance in duple time of which there are two
main typesÄfast and slow. It first became popular in 1912.

frottola (It.)
A popular and light Italian strophic song for several voices,
with the melody on top, flourishing around 1500. Particularly heard in 
aristocratic circles.

fuga
(1) (Lat.) A canon in the 15th and 16th centuries. (2) (It.) A fugue.

fugato
Describes a section of a composition in fugal style which is not
actually a fugue.

fuge (Ger.)
Fugue.

fughetta (It.)
Short fugue.

fugue
A contrapuntal composition for two or more voices or parts built
around a theme, which is successively imitated by entries of each voice at the 
beginning and developed throughout the piece. The initial entry in the tonic 
key is called the subject. The second entry in the dominant is called the 
answer. If this answer is exact (e.g. it reproduces the subject note for note in 
the dominant) then it is a real answer. If the answer is slightly modified to 
preserve tonality, it is called a tonal answer. After having announced the 
subject or answer, each voice passes on to another thematic element known as 
the countersubject. After each voice has made its initial entry the cxposition 
or first section of the fugue is complete. Thereafter, further entries of the 
subject appear, separated by contrapuntal episodes and the subject may be 
treated by augmentation, diminution, inversion, etc. J.S. Bach was one of the 
great masters of the fugue.

full close
Alternative name for perfect cadence.

fundamental
First or lowest note of the harmonic series.

funebre (It.)
Funeral. March funebre, funeral march.

fuoco (It.)
Fire.

G
Note of the scale.

gaio, gaia (It.)
Gay.

galant (Fr. and Ger.)
Style galant. Courtly. This term, adopted by German
writers, refers to a mid-18th century style characterised by a homophonic, 
formal elegance as opposed to the German contrapuntal traditional style. This 
was practised by C.P.E. Bach and influenced Mozart.

galantieren (Ger.)
Optional dances (e.g. polonaise or minuet) in the 18th
century suite, normally placed between the sarabande and gigue.

galliard
A lively dance usually in triple time often contrasted (although
often thematically linked) with the slower pavan which it followed.

galop
A quick 19th century ballroom dance in 2/4 time.

gamba (It. )
Abbreviation for viola da gamba.

garbato (It.)
Graceful .

gavotte
A fairly quick dance in 4/4 time.

gebrauchmusik (Ger.)
Same as utility music.

gedampft (Ger.)
Muted.

gehalten (Ger.)
Sustained. Cutgehalten, well sustained.

gehend (Ger.)
At a moderate speed.

geistlich (Ger.)
Sacred.

gemessen (Ger.)
Held back, tempo sustained.

gemutlich (Ger.)
Easy going, cosy, comfortable.

general pause
Complete silence. A rest of at least one bar for the whole
orchestra. Abbreviation is GP.

German sixth
A type of 'augmented sixth' chord (e.g. A flat, C, E flat and F
sharp whlch also may be treated as a dominant seventh chord.

gesangvoll (Ger.)
Songful.

geschleift (Ger.)
Smooth. Same as legato.

geschwind (Ger.)
Quick.

gestossen (Ger.)
Detached. Same as staccato.

getragen (Ger.)
Slow and sustained. Same as sostenuto.

gigue or giga (It.), jig
A lively dance in binary form, usually in 6/8 or 12/8
time. Often occurs as the last movement in the 18th century suite.

giocoso (It.)
Merry, playful.

giusto (It.)
(1) In strict time. (2) At a reasonable speed.

glee
A simple and short part-song in several sections for male voices,
flourishing in Britain between 1650 and 1830.

glissando
The sliding up or down a scale, often abbreviated by gliss. or a
wavy or straight stroke between the highest and lowest note.

GP
Abbreviation of general pause.

grace note
Same as ornament, used to embellish a melody line and
normally printed in smaller type.

gradevole (It.)
Pleasing .

grandezza (It.)
Grandeur.

grandioso (It.)
In an imposing manner.

grand opera
A vague term describing: (1) the serious, entirely sung operas
as opposed to the lighter op ra-comique which had dialogue, (2) operas on a 
grand and lavish scale.

grave (It.)
Slow and solemn.

gregorian chant
A type of plainsong associated with Pope Gregory I (590-
604) existing as a large collection of ancient monophonic melodies which 
were until quite recently used in the Roman Catholic Church.

ground bass or basso ostinato (It.)
A bass line or pattern repeated over and over while upper parts proceed. 
The ground bass is a foundation for varied melodic, contrapuntal or harmonic
treatment. Forms which use this device include the chaconne and passacaglia.

gut (Ger.)
Markedly .

gymel (Lat. gemellus, 'twin')
A type of two-part late medieval English vocalmusic, with great use of thirds
and sixths.

habanera (Sp.)
A syncopated Cuban dance introduced into Spain in the l9th century with singing, 
usually in 2/4 time.

halb(e) (Ger.)
Half. Halbsopran, mezzo-soprano. Halbtenor, baritone.

half close
An imperfect cadence.

half note
The equivalent of two quarter notes or half of a whole note (two
beats in 4/4 time).

harmonic series
A set of notes produced by a vibrating string or air column,
determining the difference of tone colours of instruments.

harmony
The sounding together of notes in a musically significant manner.
The main unit of harmony is the chord. The chords are built around the 
degrees of the scale. The primary chords in most popular compositions are 
based on the first, fourth and fifth degree of a scale. Many different theories 
have evolved over the past few centuries about the construction and 
interpolation of chords to create various senses of musical movement or 
intellectual or emotional responses. 

head voice
Upper register of voice.

heiter (Ger.)
Cheerful.

heptachord
The scale of seven notes (e.g. the modern major or minor
scale).

hidden fifths
Consecutive fifths implied, but not actually present in
harmony and nevertheless frowned upon by academics.

hocket
In medieval church music, the insertion of rests into vocal parts for
expressive purposes.

homophony (Gk., 'same-sounding')
Music in which parts move together presenting a top melody with accompanying 
chords. The opposite of polyphony.

hondo or cante hondo (Sp.)
A sad Andalusian song employing some intervals smaller than a semitone.

hornpipe
A lively English dance, in triple time in the early 16th century.
From the mid 18th century onwards it was in 4/4 time, acquiring an
association with sailors.

humoresque (Fr.), humoreske (Ger.)
An instrumental composition of a capricious nature. Schumann wrote in this style.

hymn
A Christian song of praise sung by a congregation with words
specially written.

idee fixe (Fr., 'fixed idea')
Berlioz' term for motto theme which means a recurring theme in a composition used 
(e.g. in his Symphonie Fantastique).

idyll
A literary term for a work of pastoral or peaceful nature and transferred to music 
(e.g. Siegfried Idyll by Wagner).

illustrative music
Descriptive music evoking a poem, novel, play, painting
emotion or other non-musical source. More common term is programme 
music.

imitation
A device in part-writing in which one voice repeats (or
approximately repeats) a musical figure previously stated by another voice. 
Canon and fugue employ imitation with strict rules.

imperfect cadence
See cadence.

impresslonlsm
Term borrowed from painting, describing the works of
Monet, Degas, etc. and transferred to music referring to the atmospheric music 
of Debussy and Ravel. A famous example is Prelude a l'apres-midi d'un faune 
by Debussy evoking the imagery of Mallarme's symbolist poem.

impromptu
A short composition of improvisatory nature usually for piano.
Schubert and Chopin wrote in this style.

improvisation or extemporization
The art of spontaneous composition of music in performance.
This may take the form of ornamentaion, variation of a song or theme,
or completely new material. Improvisation is great]y used in jazz.

incidental music
Properly, music to be performed during the action of a
play. However, the term also includes overtures and interludes. 

inciso (It.)
Incisive.

indeterminacy
A modernistic principal since 1945 of leaving elements of
performance to pure chance (see aleatoric music) or letting performers decide 
when to play certain passages. Berio, Cage and Stockhausen used this concept 
in their compositions.

infinite canon
A neverending canon popularly known as a round (e.g.
Three Blind Mice).

inglese (It.)
English.

in modo di (It.)
In the style or manner of.

innig (Ger.)
Intimate, heartfelt.

instrumentation
Composing music for particular instruments. This term is
used with reference to the composer's skill and knowledge of selecting 
instruments which sound well or are unusual, etc.

interlude
(I) Music inserted between other pieces of music (e.g. organ
passages between hymn verses); (2) Music inserted between acts of plays or 
other non-musical events.

intermede (Fr.)
Same as intermezzo.

intermezzo (It., 'something in the middle')
(I) An instrumental piece in opera, i.e. performed while the stage is empty;
(2) A short concert piece. Brahms wrote in this style.

interrupted cadence
See cadence.

invention
A title used by J.S. Bach for contrapuntal two-part compositions
for clavier. Bach called three-part compositions sinfonie but they are now also 
referred to as inventions.

inversion
The turning upside-down of a chord or single melody (by
applying intervals in opposite directions) or two melodies in counterpoint by 
the upper melody becoming the lower and vice-versa. This last method is 
called invertible counterpoint.

ionian mode
The mode which, on the white keys of the piano, is represented from C to C 
(same as C major scale).

isorhythmic (Gk ., 'equal-rhythmed')
A device used in motets around 1300-1450 in which the rhythmic pattern is repeated 
according to a strict scheme. 
This usually occurs in the tenor line in which the rhythm is repeated several 
times in diminishing note values.

istesso tempo (It.)
At the same tempo.

Italian overture
An orchestral work revealing a literary or pictorial element
in three movements, quick-slow-quick, from which the symphony evolved. 
The French overture has slow-quick-slow movements.

Italian sixth
A type of augmented sixth chord (e.g. A flat, C and F sharp)
distinguished by having a major triad and no other note between the notes 
forming the sixth.

jodel
A moderately fast Spanish dance in 3/4 time accompanied by
castanets .

K
Abbreviation of Kochel in cataloguing Mozart's works.

kammer (Ger.)
Chamber. Kammerrnusik, chamber music.

KB
Abbreviation of German Kontrabass, double-bass.

keen (Ir. caoine)
An Irish funeral song accompanied by wailing.

Key
Musical term to indicate the tonality of a piece based on the major or
minor scales and their relationship between the notes of the scale and chords 
built around them. There are two traditional types of keys (major or minor) 
depending upon whether they are based on the notes of the major or minor 
scale.

key signature
This indicates the precise key of the piece. Sharps or flats are
placed at the beginning of a composition after the clef. Any other alteration 
(e.g. a brief modulation to another key, is indicated by accidentals. If there is 
an extended passage in a new key, however, then a new key signature may 
appear. The key signature must be represented at the beginning of every new 
stave in a composition (although not always in popular music). 

klein (Ger.)
Little.

lacrimoso (It.)
Mournful, sad.

lai (Fr.) or lay
A type of trouvere song similar to the sequence with
sections of irregular length and melodic repetition.

lament
Music signifying grief but especially describing bagpipe music
played at Scottish clan funerals.

landler
Slow Austrian dance in waltz time popular in the late 18th and
early l9th centuries.

largamente (It.)
Broad and deliberate in style.

larghetto (It., 'a little largo')
Not quite as slow as a largo.

largo (It., 'broad')
Slow and broad.

leading note
The seventh degree of the major scale. This is so called
because it seems naturally to rise to the tonic a semitone above. In the minor 
scale this note is used only when ascending, not descending.

lebhaft (Ger.)
Lively.

legato (It.)
Smoothly.

leger (Fr.)
Light.

Legerement
lightly.

leggiero, leggieramente (It.)
Light, lightly.

leyno (It . 'wood ')
(1) Direction in some scores to use the woodblock; (2)
Direction to string players to hit the string with the back of the bow.

leicht (Ger.)
Lightly.

leise (Ger.)
Soft, gentle. Leiser, softer.

leitmotif (Ger.)
Leading motif. This is a recurring theme symbolising a
character, emotion or object and was first used by H. Von Wolzogen in a 
discussion of Wagner's The Ring. 

lento (It.)
Slow.

lesson
This term described a short, keyboard piece or a set of short pieces
in the 17th and 18th centuries.

libretto (It., 'booklet')
The text of an opera or oratorio.

licenza (It.)
Freedom, licence. Con akune licenze, with some freedom in
style.

lied (Ger., plural lieder)
Song. This term is particularly applied to the
German romantic songs of Schubert, Schumann and Brahms. A characteristic 
is the importance paid to the piano part and the mood of the words.

ligature
(1) In vocal music this is a slur mark indicating that a group of
notes is to be sung to the same syllable; (2) In instrumental music this is a slur 
indicating notes which are to be phrased together.

loco (It., 'place')
An indication to a performer that music is to be played at
the pitch written. This direction may (a) cancel previous indications to play at 
a different pitch or (b) indicate a passage to be played in the normal position 
as opposed to any other in string music.

locrian mode
A mode represented on the white keys of the piano from B to B.

lontano (It.)
Distant.

loud pedal
A nickname for the sustaining (right) pedal on the piano.

lungo, lunga (It.)
Long.

lusingando, lusinghiero (It.)
Alluringly.

lustig (Ger. )
Cheerful, jolly.

Iydian mode
(1) In Ancient Greek music this could be represented on the
white keys of the piano from C to C; (2) From the middle ages, the Iydian 
mode can be represented on the white keys of the piano from F to F.

Iyric
(1) Words of a song. (2) A fairly short but expressive piece (e.g. Lyric
Piece by Grieg; (3) Describes vocal performance with the lyre. (4) A Iyric 
drama is an occasional synonym for opera.

ma (It.)
(1) But; (2) Abbreviation of the major scale.

madrigal
A secular, polyphonic, unaccompanied vocal composition set to
poems for several parts, mainly cultivated in the 16th and 17th centuries. 
Italian writers of this time included Gabrieli and Palestrina (16th century). 
Monteverdi and Marenzio wrote in the later highly stylised manner of the 
17th century. English writers included Morley and YVeelkes.

maestoso (It.)
Majestic, dignified.

maestro (It., 'master')
This title was given to well-known conductors and composers in Italy.
It is now used (sometimes rather amusingly) elsewhere.

maggiore (It.)
Major.

maj
Abbreviation of the major scale.

major, minor
These are the two main scales of the western tonal system.
The major key is based on the major scale and the minor key is based on the 
minor scale. The minor scale breaks into three variations: harmonic, melodic 
and natural. These terms also refer to chords and intervals being built out of 
the major or minor scale. 

mal (Ger.)
Time.

malaguena (Sp.)
An Andalusian dance, originating in Malaga, marked by
singing. This term also describes an instrumental piece of similar nature.

malinconia (It.)
Melancholy.

marcato (It.)
Marked, emphatic.

march
A marching piece either slow (4/4 time) or quick (2/4 or 6/8 time).

marche (Fr.)
March.

marcia (It.)
March. Alla marcia, in a march-like style.

marziale (It.)
Martial.

masque
Aristocratic, elaborate English stage entertainment chiefly
cultivated in the 17th century and involving poetry, dancing, scenery, 
costumes, instrumental and vocal music. The masque was related to opera and 
ballet.

mass
This is the main service of the Roman Catholic Church which has
been set to music by composers including Bach, Mozart and Haydn.

mattinata (It. )
Morning song.

mazurka
A Polish folk dance in moderate to fast 3/4 or 3/8 time. Adapted
and stylised by Chopin.

md
Instruction to play with the right hand in piano playing. Abbreviations
of main droite (Fr.) and mano destra (It.).

mediant
A name for the third degree of the scale (e.g. E is in the mediant in
C major). The mediant is so-called because it stands between the tonic and 
dominant.

melisma (Gk., ' song'; plural melismata)
Describes a group of notes sung to
the same syllable. However, the term is also applied to any florid vocal 
passage of improvisatory or cadenza-like nature.

melodic minor
One of the three types of minor scale.

melodie (Fr.)
I) Melody. (2) Song.

melodrama
In musical contexts, this term refers to the dramatic use of the
spoken word against a musical background. This style may be used 
throughout an entire work or just as part of a work.

meno (It.)
Less.

Meno mosso
slower.

menuet (Fr.), menuett (Ger.)
Same as minuet.

menuetto
Term used by German composers who believed it to be Italian for
minuet. The Italian for minuet is minuetto.

messa di voce (It.)
The steady increasing and decreasing of volume on one
long held note in singing.

messe (Fr. and Ger.)
Same as mass.

mesto (It.)
Sad.

meta (It.)
Half.

metamorphosis of themes
Liszt's term for leitmotif, the recurring and development of themes symbolising 
a character, emotion, object, idea, etc.

metre
This is indicated by a time signature dividing up the music into
regularly occurring accents (e.g. 3/4 time means that the basic note values are
quarter notes and that every third one is accented).

mezzo (It., 'half')
Mezzo-soprano, female voice midway between a soprano and contralto range. 

Mezzo forte
Midway between loud and soft and abbreviated mf.

Mezza voce
With a moderate tone.

MG
Instruction to play with the left hand in piano playing. Abbreviation of
main gauche (Fr.).

mi
Abbreviation of the minor scale.

microtone
An interval smaller than a semitone, evident in some modern
compositions.

min
Abbreviation of the minor scale.

minacciando (It.)
Threatening.

minor
Opposite of major. Applied to scales, keys, chords and intervals.

minuet (Eng.), minuetto (It.)
A moderately fast French dance of rustic origin in 3/4 time but rising to court 
and becoming fashionable in the 18th century. The minuet is the standard third 
movement in the classical sonata, symphony, string quartet, etc., developing later
into the scherzo with Beethoven. Form is A A B A.

mirror
This term is sometimes attached to a fugue or canon to describe two
or more parts appearing simultaneously, with one the correct way up and the 
other upside down, as if a mirror had been placed between them.

missa (Lat.)
Mass.

missa brevis (Lat.)
(I) A short concise musical setting of the mass. 
(2) A setting of the Kyrie and Gloria only.

Missa solemnis
High Mass.

misura (It.)
A measure. Senza misura, not in strict time.

mit (Ger.)
With.

mixed chorus, mixed voices
mixed chorus, mixed voices A body of singers including both adult male and 
female voices.

mixolydian mode
A mode represented on the white notes of the piano from G to G.

moderato (It.)
At a moderate pace. This term is used in other tempos (e.g. allegro moderato, 
implying a moderately fast pace).

modes
Sets of eight-note scales inherited from ancient Greece via the
Middle Ages in which they were most prevalent, although they still survive 
today in plainsong and folk music. At the end of the 17th century the modes 
had been reduced to two scales, major and minor, which we know today. Here 
are the modes which may be represented by scales of white notes on the piano 
with the names derived from the Greek system. The 'final' of a mode is the 
note of a cadence, or resting point, in a melody, and the 'dominant' is a 
reciting note.

modo (It.)
Manner. In modo di, in the manner of. 

modulate
The shift from one key to another in composition.

molto (It.)
Much, very.

monodrama
A dramatic stage work for only one character.

monody (Gk., 'single song')
 A term used to describe a solo song with accompaniment (or continuo) in contrast to
 the polyphonic style in which all parts are of equal importance.

monophony (Gk., 'single sound')
This term describes music with a single melody line without support of accompaniment.

monothematic
Music with only one theme.

morbido (It.)
Gentle, delicate.

mordent
An ornament which has two forms: 
(1) upper mordent (or inverted mordent); 
(2) lower mordent or simply, mordent.

morendo (It.)
Dying away (of force and sometimes, speed).

mosso (It.)
Animated, moving.

motet
(1) In modern use this is a religious choral composition in Latin of
the Roman Catholic service corresponding to the anthem in the Anglican 
service. 
(2) In medieval times, this was a vocal composition based on a given 
set of words and melody, which sometimes came from a secular song.

motif (Fr.)
(1) A term sometimes used in English for leitmotif. 
(2) Sarne as motiv or motive.

motion
A term describing the course of a melody or melodies. Conjunct
motion is movement by step. Disjunct motion is movement by leap. Similar 
motion describes two melodies moving in the same direction and contrary 
motion describes two melodies moving in opposite directions. Paralicl motion 
describes parts moving the same way and also keeping the same interval 
between them.

motiv (Ger.), motive (Eng.)
(1) A short but recognisable melodic or rhythmic figure. 
(2) In analysis, this term describes the smallest subdivision of 
(e.g. a theme).

moto (It.)
Movement. Con Moto means 'with movement'.

motto theme
A term for music which recurs and develops in the form of a
quotation.

movement
A self-contained section of a large composition having its own
time signature and title. In some works, movements are directly linked 
(without a break inbetween) and sound incomplete without performing them 
in sequence. In all works, movements form a cohesive whole, much like in a 
set of related literary short stories.
movimento (It.)\Motion. Doppio mouvmento, at double the preceding speed.

MS (It. 'mano sinistra')
Left hand. Instruction to play with left hand in piano playing.

M Sop
Abbreviation of mezzo soprano.

musical play
A type of American-influenced light stage entertainment which succeeded the musical 
comedy in the mid-20th century. Now known simply as a musical. An example is
Phantom of the Opera with music by Andrew Lloyd Webber.

musical switch
A medley of popular tunes.

music drama
A Wagnerian term for opera, which he felt to be inadequate.
This term describes Wagner's new concept of the leitmotif and the fusing of 
scenery, costume, libretti, music and drama into a new art.

music theatre
A term describing (from the 1960's) dramatic works simpler
than opera and suitable for the concert platform.

musique concrete (Fr., 'concrete music')
Music in which natural sounds (instrumental, vocal or other) were recorded on 
tape and then distorted, combined, etc. This term was coined by Peter Schaeffer
in 1948 but it has largely been superseded by electronic music.

muta (It.)
Change. Direction to the timpani player to change tuning or to
the wind player to change instrument.

nach (Ger.)
To, after.

nachschlag (Ger.)
Ornament in German music in the 17th and 18th centuries.

nachtanz (Ger., 'after dance')
A quick dance used to follow a slow one.

nachtmusik (Ger.)
Serenade or 'night music'. A title used in Mozart's Eine Klcine Nachtmusik.

nationalism, nationalist
Music with national characteristics (e.g. use of
folk music. The term is particularly applied to 19th century composers (e.g. 
Smetena and Grieg. Bartok and Kodaly were also famous as nationalist 
composers).

natural
(1) The cancelling of a flat or sharp of a note or key indicated by a
sign beside the note; 
(2) A trumpet or horn, etc. not having any valves or keys.

naturale
Instruction to a singer or instrumentalist to perform in the normal
way (e.g. singing tenor instead of falsetto or playing without mutes).

neapolitan sixth
A chord on the fourth degree of the scale with a minor
third and sixth (e.g. in C major it includes the notes F, A flat and D flat).

neo (Gk., 'new')
A prefix indicating a new interest in older styles (e.g. neo-romantic refers to 
composers in the 20th century writing in the romantic style).

neo-classical
Describes a trend, especially in the 1920's, characterised by
its use of the concerto grosso technique, contrapuntal writing and avoidance 
of emotion. Neo-classical composers included Stravinsky and Hindemith.

new music
(I) In the early 17th century this described the new expressive
music; (2) Between 1850 and 1900 it described the new music of Wagner and 
Liszt as opposed to the more traditional music of Brahms; (3) Today it refers 
to music by contemporary composers.

niente (It.)
Nothing. A niente, to nothing. Used after a diminuendo symbol
to indicate the sound dying away entirely.
nobile, nobilmente (It.)\Noble, nobly.

nocturne
A night piece with two main meanings: (1) In the 18th century
this was a composition close to a serenade for several instruments and 
movements. (2) In the romantic period it was a short Iyrical piece in one 
movement for piano (e.g. by Chopin).

noel (Fr., 'Christmas')
A Christmas carol.

non (Fr. and It.)
Not.

non-harmonic note
A note which is not part of the chord with which it
sounds. This could mean a passing note or an appoggiatura.

nota cambiata (It., 'changed note')
A contrapuntal device whereby a dissonant note is used when one expects a 
consonant one.

notation
Written music, by ordinary staff notation symbols or graphic
representation or simply by letter-names (e.g. the tonic sol-fa.

note cluster
The performance of a group of adjacent notes simultaneously
on the piano, e. g. with the forearm or a piece of wood. Pioneered by Cowell 
in 1912 and used by Ives. Also known as tone cluster.

note row
This occurs in 20th century serial music, also called
dodecaphonic music or twelve-note music. It is the order in which the 
composer chooses to arrange the twelve notes, which serves as the foundation 
of the composition.

novelette (Eng.) or novellette (Ger.)
A short, instrumental, romantic piece. The term was first used by Schumann for 
a piano work in 1848.