Species: six species have existed historically with worldwide inhabitancy, with the exceptions of Australia and Antarctica. Presently, only two species survive: Loxodonta africana (African elephant) and Elephas maximus (Indian or Asian elephant, including Elephas maximus maximus, the Ceylon elephant)(Z1, Z11). One of the closest species, thought to have shared a common ancestor, is the Procavia capensis, or Hyrax, a marmot-like creature over 300 times smaller (in kg and lbs) than the African elephant (Z26).

Physics Application(s) Overview: Bioelectricity; sound and infrasound; seismic communication.

Species distinctions: African Elephant: The African elephant is the larger of the two species and not as closely related to the Asian species as one would think:

Height: 3.0 to 4.0 m ( 9.5 to 13.0 ft)
Weight: 5000.0 to 7000.0 kg (11000.0 to 15000.0 lbs, or up to 6.0 tons, perhaps even to 7.4 tons)
Tusks weight: up to 102.0 kg (224.0 lbs)
Tusks length: up to 3.49 m ( 11.3 ft)
Sexual maturity: 14 to 15 years
Gestation period: approximately 20 to 22 months (anytime from 515 to 760 days)
Number of young: 1 calf, 113.0 kg ( 248.0 lbs). Twins are rare.
Life-span: 50 to 60 years (natural death of old age)
Diet: grass, foliage, fruit, branches, twigs; 227.0 kg consumed per day (500.0 lbs)
Distinctive qualities: large ears (thought to be shape like the African continent); sloping forehead used to push trees down to get to top foliage; hollow back (dips down); two lips at the end of the trunk; found in most of Africa, south of Sahara desert in the savannah, bush, forest, river valley, or semi-desert; can find water during drought by boring holes into ground using tusk; must seek shade from midday sun where possible; waves ears to cool body, as the large amount of surface from the ears allows for loss of body heat; hind foot has only three hoof-like nails, not five as the front possess; 21 pairs of ribs and 26 caudal vertebrate. Believed to have evolved approximately 65 million years ago, around the fifth period of extinction during the Jurassic period, from an animal only slightly larger than a pig (Z1, WFF1).

Species distinctions: Indian (Asian) and Ceylon elephant:
Height: up to approximately 3.5 m ( 11.5 ft)
Weight: up to 5000.0 kg ( 11023.0 lbs, or up to 5.0 tons)
Sexual maturity: 8 to 12 years
Gestation period: approximately 20 months (607 to 650 days)
Number of young: 1 calf, 80.0 to 100.0 kg ( 175.0 to 220.0 lbs)
Life-span: 50 to 70 years (natural death of old age)
Diet: herbaceous and softer plants (no wood); 227.0 kg consumed per day (500.0 lbs)
Distinctive qualities: small ears; flattened forehead; short tusks; raised back; only one lip at the end of the trunk; found in jungles of Ceylon (Sri Lanka), Burma, Thailand, Malaya, Sumatra and in mountains at height of 3658.0 m (12000.0 ft); seek shade from midday sun in dense shade provided by trees; all feet have five hoof-like nails; 19 pairs of ribs and 33 caudal vertebrate (Z11).

Although not of the same genus nor species, the African and Asian elephant share similar methods of survival and are included in the group classified as, "pachyderms", in reference to their thick skin and sparse hair which they share with the rhinoceros and hippopotamus. Care must be taken regarding their skin, so they bathe in water and dust (nearly submersing themselves completely), and will wallow in mud if water is scarce. The bones are large, filled with a spongy bone instead of narrow cavities, where the trunk is long, with nostrils at tip to carry food and water to the mouth, or spray water and dust during bathing, or for sense of taste and smell. They may sleep standing or lying to one side, employing vegetation as a pillow under the head: breathing lying down is at half the rate of standing, which is done only part of the few hours of rest at night (Burton 708).

Every elephant in its natural lifetime possesses seven teeth in each half of both the upper and lower jaw other than the tusks, which are single, elongated incisor teeth of the upper jaw. The first four are "milk teeth" which are lost and replaced by six teeth of 30.4 cm (12.0 inches), which move down on each half of the jaw like a conveyor belt. The first are in use alone, molars with broad cushioning to allow for chewing of fibrous vegetation, but as the surface wears away, the next tooth behind it moves forward to push out the old and takes its place. When the last teeth are worn down, the elephant can no longer support itself and will die from starvation (Burton 708).

Elephants live in strong, close herds of cows and bulls, led by a mature cow to whom each of the elephants in the herd are related. Herds are nomadic, but do not stray from water: this allows for stress applied on the vegetation to be relieved so the plants may grow again before the elephants return. Young bulls are driven from the herd upon reaching puberty (the "teenage years") and live in separate "bachelor" herd; adult bulls live in solitary, joining a herd briefly to mate, which involves displays of affection. It has been observed that when a cow reaches point of labour, she will disappear into a thicket accompanied by a second cow who may act as a midwife or guard, and both return with a calf, who can walk soon after birth (Burton 708). Cows bear offspring approximately every four years and may have three or four calves with her in the herd simultaneously. The calves are defended vigorously defended, particularly from tigers and lions, where the cows will attack any threat, just as herds will defend wounded comrades and will help the wounded away, with two elephants on either side to keep them upright. Bulls have been known to charge trains and engines, head on. Due to their closeness, elephants are known to mourn for their dead: they will bury their dead with twigs, leaves, and even in the ground in a grave dug by their tusks and trunks. Elephants will also weep and emit shrill cries for their deceased, as was seen in November 2001 for approximately six hours, after seven Asian elephants- two adults, five calves- were killed by a speeding train in Assam, India: a herd of approximately one hundred elephants gathered at the site of the accident to grieve (H).

Bioelectricity: Although elephants do not possess electric organs, they employ the use of electricity through the use of nerves to provide movement, sight to navigate and see danger, and DNA/protein synthesis to survive and reproduce, like many other zoological organisms.

Sound and infrasound: Elephants are a source of much noise and communication, employing a variety of sounds, both audible and inaudible to homo sapiens. The most popular sound acknowledged as that of an elephant is the loud, impure-toned "trumpet" sound of approximately 1000.0 Hz, and if such a sign is ignored, the elephant may charge, however, elephants are known to mostly give false charges, where they turn or stop at the last second.

Elephants also emit loud, constant sounds which had been believed to come from the stomach, as their diet is of large proportions, however the noises were discovered to be controlled, stopping suddenly when the elephant was approached. It was discovered that such sounds are not in relation to digestion but are to keep the herd in contact, a type of "purr" or "gargle" which is silenced when a possible danger approaches to alert the rest of the herd, which, too, grows silent. The purring resumes when the threat retreats.

However, elephants possess an extraordinary sense of hearing and emit infrasonic calls with overtones, with which they can both hear and determine the origin of the call. African elephants are known to emit infrasound calls of between 15.0 and 40.0 Hz, which are produced in the throat where sinuses and trunks may manipulate the sound texture. Most elephant communication is infrasonic, rumbles which may be heard by other elephants in herds at least 10.0 km (approximately 6.0 miles) away as calls of warning, greeting, rally, mating, food location, excitement, fear, or other calls, the rumbles traveling further in the dry savannah during the night. This is their long-distance communication system which aids in keeping herds together in coordinated movements without losing contact or meeting with scarce resources. It also allows for males to locate fertile females in order to mate and for cows to keep track of their calves.

Seismic communication: As elephants send infrasonic calls to one another, a replica of the signal is sent as seismic waves , which are able to travel through the ground more than 1.5 times further than the infrasound in air (between 16.0 to 32.0 km or 10.0 to 20.0 miles), meaning that the elephants communicate over longer distances than previously believed with a well developed communication system. Vibrations in the earth may also be generated through stomping of the foot and flapping of the ears, both of which are used in the defense mechanism of mock charges. Such vibrations may be used to greet or warn other herds, to locate mates or resources of water and food, or convey basic details about the location and moods of the herds, perhaps invoking anger or fear in other herds, many of these calls seemingly more received by the cows in the herd.

Theories on how elephants are able to detect such seismic waves and use them for their benefit have been proposed, mostly based on two physical properties of the elephant: their toes and their trunk. The feet of elephants are more than mere simple, leveled cylinders, but they are composed of fatty tissue which creates a "water-bed" effect, allowing for silent movement, as the elephant walks on their toes. Vibrations from the ground cause the tissue to oscillate, which triggers Pacinian corpuscles (vibration sensors) within the elephant, which are much like an onion with layers and a slimy gel between each layer. Vibrations manipulate the layer and transmit signals to the brain. It is also believed that they may sense vibrations through the toenails which carry to the ear via bone conduction to receive messages from. When discussing the trunk, there is believed to be a sensitive tip on the trunk with very sensitive tissue, consisting of a large amount of Pacinian corpuscles, which can detect vibrations when touched to the ground. However, it is difficult to attain such a part of the trunk as it is a sacred relic, used as a charm for good luck in South-east Asia. According to geophysicists, details sent in a seismic wave become diluted after traveling a long distance, however elephants have been found to possess a mass of brain cortex, which allows for increased processing power of weak signals.

In studies of elephant communication, seismic communication became a theory when it was observed that the elephants would lean forward with one leg raised and freeze for "no apparent reason": this lead into tests in Africa, India, and Texas, using advances in technology to record, study, and manipulate sounds and vibrations produced. In one experiment, two microphones and a geophones- located under the microphones- were situated outside an elephant closure, which detected and measured underground vibrations. Signals recorded were played back to the elephants through specially adapted seismic transmitters with a mixture of elephant calls, synthesized low-frequency tones, rock music, and silence to observe the reactions of the elephants (change in behaviour) to such signals. Such experiments and observations have also been compared to other zoological specimens that use, or are thought to use, seismic signals in communication, mating, and prey location: some moles (Golden mole, et cetera), seals (Elephant seal, et cetera), insects, fish, reptiles, amphibians, and perhaps bison and lions, however, the elephants use a more complex system which travels further than other organisms.

Through the use of infrasound and seismic waves, elephants may have the ability to hear grinding rock during an earthquake and feel the tremors. Herds also use seismic waves to find water, as thunderstorms in places such as Angola generate both air-infrasound and seismic waves, which the elephants in Etosha may detect as far as 160.0 km (100.0 miles) away, responding by moving towards the storm. However, it follows that if elephants are able to detect thunderstorms and other herds from such far distances by sensitive detectors, it is a serious issue regarding how homo sapiens affect the herds with use of artificial infrasound waves. A small town is able to produce noise within the ground for a 100.0 km (62.1 miles) diameter, where traffic on one road may be detected 30.0 km (18.6 miles) away, constituting concerns regarding elephants found in zoos. Jets, water pumps, construction, explosions, helicopters and rotating blades, and loud city noises are also sources of noise and ground pollution, which may be liable to play an important factor in the well-being for an elephant, as it applies stress upon communication.

However, a last, but not pleasant, source of infrasound and seismic pollution is thus: the loss of trees and vegetation in over-populated areas of Africa is a serious issue and in efforts to control the elephant population, many herds suffer the effects of culling, where wildlife managers shoot at herds from helicopters in what could be declared as a "mass murder" or massacre of zoological life, claiming it as a necessity to keep the herds from starvation in the national parks. However, it has been proven that herds from the southern end of Kruger National Park in South Africa are able to detect and become anxious from the distress calls and running of herds under attack in the northern region.* This is also true in the case of poachers, who still hunt the elephant (by use of machine guns) for body parts, including the ivory tusks, in order to benefit from popular demand of buyers. *

 

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